Medicine:Infections associated with diseases

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Infections associated with diseases are those infections that are associated with possible infectious etiologies that meet the requirements of Koch's postulates. Other methods of causation are described by the Bradford Hill criteria and evidence-based medicine. Koch's postulates have been modified by some epidemiologists, based on the sequence-based detection of distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences in tissue samples. When using this method, absolute statements regarding causation are not always possible. Higher amounts of distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences should be in those exhibiting disease, compared to controls. In addition, the DNA load should become lower with the resolution of the disease. The distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences load should also increase upon recurrence.

Other conditions are met to establish cause or association including studies in disease transmission. This means that there should be a high disease occurrence in those carrying a pathogen, evidence of a serological response to the pathogen, and the success of vaccination prevention. Direct visualization of the pathogen, the identification of different strains, immunological responses in the host, how the infection is spread and, the combination of these should all be taken into account to determine the probability that an infectious agent is the cause of the disease. A conclusive determination of a causal role of an infectious agent for in a particular disease using Koch's postulates is desired yet this might not be possible.[1]

The leading cause of death worldwide is cardiovascular disease, but infectious diseases are the second leading cause of death worldwide and the leading cause of death in infants and children.[2]

Other causes

Other causes or associations of disease are: a compromised immune system, environmental toxins, radiation exposure, diet and other lifestyle choices, stress, and genetics. Diseases may also be multifactorial, requiring multiple factors to induce disease. For example: in a murine model, Crohn's disease can be precipitated by a norovirus, but only when both a specific gene variant is present and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.[3]

List of diseases associated with infectious bacteria and viruses

A list of the more common and well-known diseases associated with infectious pathogens is provided and is not intended to be a complete listing.

Asthma Mycoplasma pneumoniae[4] and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections are associated with the onset and symptoms of asthma.[5]
Autoimmune diseases Autoimmune diseases are associated with Neoehrlichia mikurensis infection, and Borrelia miyamotoi infection,[1] and HIV,[6] and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[7] Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[8]
Cancer


Anal cancer is associated with human papillomaviruses.[9]

Bladder cancer Schistosoma helminths can cause cancer.[10]
Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with cytomegalovirus,[11] BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.[12]
Breast cancer is associated with mouse mammary tumor virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human papillomaviruses.[13]
Carcinoid tumors are associated with enterovirus infections.[14]
Cervical cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.[15][16]
Colorectal cancer is associated with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,[17] with human papillomaviruses,[18] and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[19] JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.[20]
Gallbladder cancer is associated with the bacterium Salmonella Typhi.[21]
Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[22] hepatitis C virus,[23] and HIV.[24]
Kaposi's Sarcoma can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,[25] and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[26]
Lung cancer is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,[27] with human papillomaviruses, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.[28]
Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
Mesothelioma is associated with simian virus 40,[29] especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.[30]
Oropharyngeal cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.
Ovarian cancer is associated with mumps virus.
Pancreatic cancer is associated with hepatitis B virus and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Prostate cancer is associated with xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus and BK virus.
Skin neoplasm is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Squamous cell carcinoma is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Stomach cancer is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Thyroid cancer is associated with simian virus 40.

Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome (also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis) is associated with enteroviruses (such as Coxsackie B virus),[31][32] human herpesvirus 6 variant A,[33] human herpesvirus 7,[34] and parvovirus B19.[35][36] The bacteria Coxiella burnetii[37] and Chlamydia pneumoniae[38] are known causes of chronic fatigue syndrome (antibiotics can cure these bacterial forms of chronic fatigue syndrome).
Common cold The common cold is also known as Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) and is caused by a viral infection.[39] Efforts to develop vaccines are ongoing.[2]
Crohn's disease One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).[40] Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.[41] In a murine model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,[3][42] but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
Coronary heart disease Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[43]
Dementia Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus, bornavirus, and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.[44]
Depression Depression is associated with cytomegalovirus[45] and West Nile virus,[46] and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[47] It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.[48][49]

Major depressive disorder is associated with bornavirus,[50] as well as Bartonella[51] and Borrelia[44] species bacteria.
Seasonal affective disorder is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[52]

Diabetes mellitus type 1
Diabetes mellitus type 2 Diabetes mellitus type 2 is associated with cytomegalovirus,[53] hepatitis C virus,[54] enteroviruses,[55] Ljungan virus[56]
Dilated cardiomyopathy Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B virus.[57]
Epilepsy Epilepsy is associated with human herpesvirus 6.[58]
Gonorrhea Men who have had a gonorrhea infection have a risk of having prostate cancer.[59]
Guillain–Barré syndrome Guillain–Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni, and with the viruses cytomegalovirus[60] and enterovirus.[61]
Irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria enteroaggregative Escherichia coli[62] and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,[63] the protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia,[64] and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.[65] Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.[66]
Low back pain Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Cutibacterium acnes.[67][68]
Lupus Lupus is associated with the viruses parvovirus B19,[69] Epstein-Barr virus,[70] and cytomegalovirus.[71]
Lyme disease Lyme disease is associated with infection by Borrelia miyamotoi, and Rickettsia species.[1]
Metabolic syndrome Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[72] and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.[73]
Multiple sclerosis
Myocardial infarction Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae,[74] cytomegalovirus[75] and Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus).[76] (Coxsackie B virus is also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis).[77]
Obesity

Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Bacillota bacteria in relation to Bacteroidota bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Bacillota bacteria (such as Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidota bacteria.[78]

Obsessive–compulsive disorder Obsessive–compulsive disorder is associated with Streptococcus[79] and Borrelia[44] species bacteria.
Panic disorder Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia[44] and Bartonella[51] species bacteria.[51]
Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is associated with influenza A virus,[80] as well as the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[81]
Psoriasis Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.[82]
Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with parvovirus B19.[69]
Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria[83] species and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori[84]
Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is associated with bornavirus,[50] the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis,[85] as well as Borrelia species bacteria.[44] Schizophrenia is also linked to neonatal infection with Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus), which one study found carries an increased risk of adult onset schizophrenia.[86] Prenatal exposure to influenza virus in the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of schizophrenia by 7-fold.[87]
Severe acute respiratory syndrome Severe acute respiratory syndrome is a viral disease. Efforts to develop a vaccine are ongoing.[2]
Stroke Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,[88] Helicobacter pylori,[89] Mycobacterium tuberculosis,[90] and Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[91] as well as the virus varicella zoster virus[92] and Histoplasma species fungi.[93]
Thromboangiitis obliterans Thromboangiitis obliterans is associated with Rickettsia species bacteria.[94]
Tourette syndrome Tourette syndrome is associated with Streptococcus species bacteria.[95]

Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[96] Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[97]

Vasculitis Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,[69] and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established cause of vasculitis.

Epidemiology

Infectious pathogen-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses. The treatment of chronic diseases accounts for 75% of all US healthcare costs (amounting to $1.7 trillion in 2009).[98]

History

One of first examples of systematic study of disease causation was Avicenna, in the tenth century. The history of infection and disease were observed in the 1800s and related to the one of the tick-borne diseases, Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The cause of viral encephalitis was discovered in Russia based upon epidemiological clustering of cases. The virus causing this illness was isolated in 1937. The rash typical of Lyme borreliosis was identified the early 1900s.[1] Historically, some chronic diseases were linked or associated with infectious pathogens.[99][100][101]

See also

References

Blue question mark icon.svg Using Wikipedia for Research

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Tijsse-Klasen, Ellen; Koopmans, Marion P. G.; Sprong, Hein (2014). "Tick-Borne Pathogen â€" Reversed and Conventional Discovery of Disease". Frontiers in Public Health 2: 73. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2014.00073. ISSN 2296-2565. PMID 25072045. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Lee, Sujin; Nguyen, Minh Trang (2015). "Recent Advances of Vaccine Adjuvants for Infectious Diseases". Immune Network 15 (2): 51–7. doi:10.4110/in.2015.15.2.51. ISSN 1598-2629. PMID 25922593. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Cadwell, Ken; Patel, Khushbu K.; Maloney, Nicole S.; Liu, Ta-Chiang; Ng, Aylwin C.Y.; Storer, Chad E.; Head, Richard D.; Xavier, Ramnik et al. (June 2010). "Virus-Plus-Susceptibility Gene Interaction Determines Crohn's Disease Gene Atg16L1 Phenotypes in Intestine". Cell 141 (7): 1135–45. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009. PMID 20602997. 
  4. ↑ Gavranich, John B; Chang, Anne B (2015). "Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1 (9): CD004875. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004875.pub5. PMID 25566754. 
  5. ↑ Guilbert, T.W; Denlinger, L.C (2010). "Role of infection in the development and exacerbation of asthma". Expert Rev Respir Med 4 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1586/ers.09.60. PMID 20305826. 
  6. ↑ Stratton, Richard; Slapak, Gabrielle; Mahungu, Tabitha; Loes, Sabine Kinloch-de (2009). "Autoimmunity and HIV". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 22 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006. PMID 19532080. 
  7. ↑ Shapira, Yinon; Agmon-Levin, Nancy; Shoenfeld, Yehuda (2009). "Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, Autoimmunity, and Vitamin D". Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology 38 (2–3): 169–77. doi:10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1. PMID 19543859. 
  8. ↑ Thomas, Dimitrios; Karachaliou, Feneli; Kallergi, Konstantina; Vlachopapadopoulou, Elpis; Antonaki, Georgia; Chatzimarkou, Fotini; Fotinou, Aspasia; Kaldrymides, Philippos et al. (2008). "Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease". Endocrine 33 (2): 171–5. doi:10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8. PMID 18473192. 
  9. ↑ "Anal Cancer Treatment". National Cancer Institute. May 12, 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/anal/patient/anal-treatment-pdq#section/all. 
  10. ↑ "Schistosomiasis Fact sheet N°115". February 2014. https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs115/en/. 
  11. ↑ Söderberg-Nauclér, Cecilia (2015). "Cytomegalovirus in human brain tumors: Role in pathogenesis and potential treatment options". World Journal of Experimental Medicine 5 (1): 1–10. doi:10.5493/wjem.v5.i1.1. ISSN 2220-315X. PMID 25699229. 
  12. ↑ Barbanti-Brodano, Giuseppe; Sabbioni, Silvia; Martini, Fernanda; Negrini, Massimo; Corallini, Alfredo; Tognon, Mauro (2006). "BK Virus, JC Virus and Simian Virus 40 Infection in Humans, and Association with Human Tumors". Polyomaviruses and Human Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 577. pp. 319–41. doi:10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23. ISBN 978-0-387-29233-5. 
  13. ↑ Lawson, James S; Günzburg, Walter H; Whitaker, Noel J (2006). "Viruses and human breast cancer". Future Microbiology 1 (1): 33–51. doi:10.2217/17460913.1.1.33. PMID 17661684. 
  14. ↑ Chia, J.; Chia, A.; El-Habbal, R. (2011). "Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection". Journal of Clinical Pathology 64 (8): 722–4. doi:10.1136/jcp.2010.082271. PMID 21278394. 
  15. ↑ Bosch, FX; Lorincz, A; Muñoz, N; Meijer, CJ; Shah, KV (2002). "The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer". Journal of Clinical Pathology 55 (4): 244–65. doi:10.1136/jcp.55.4.244. PMID 11919208. 
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  18. ↑ Burnett-Hartman, Andrea N.; Newcomb, Polly A.; Potter, John D. (2008). "Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: A review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 17 (11): 2970–9. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571. PMID 18990738. 
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  33. ↑ Di Luca, D; Zorzenon, M; Mirandola, P; Colle, R; Botta, GA; Cassai, E (1995). "Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome". Journal of Clinical Microbiology 33 (6): 1660–61. doi:10.1128/jcm.33.6.1660-1661.1995. PMID 7650209. 
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  35. ↑ Seishima, Mariko; Mizutani, Yoko; Shibuya, Yoshinao; Arakawa, Chikako (2008). "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia". Dermatology 216 (4): 341–6. doi:10.1159/000116723. PMID 18277075. 
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  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Bode, L; Ludwig, H (2003). "Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk". Clinical Microbiology Reviews 16 (3): 534–45. doi:10.1128/CMR.16.3.534-545.2003. PMID 12857781. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Schaller, JL; Burkland, GA; Langhoff, PJ (2007). "Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?". MedGenMed 9 (3): 54. PMID 18092060. 
  52. ↑ Natelson, BH; Ye, N; Moul, DE; Jenkins, FJ; Oren, DA; Tapp, WN; Cheng, YC (1994). "High titers of anti-Epstein-Barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness". Journal of Medical Virology 42 (1): 42–6. doi:10.1002/jmv.1890420109. PMID 8308519. 
  53. ↑ Roberts, BW; Cech, I (2005). "Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus". Southern Medical Journal 98 (7): 686–92. doi:10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D. PMID 16108236. 
  54. ↑ Negro, F; Alaei, M (2009). "Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes". World Journal of Gastroenterology 15 (13): 1537–47. doi:10.3748/wjg.15.1537. PMID 19340895. 
  55. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named PMID_19266182
  56. ↑ Holmberg, Rebecka; Klitz, William; Blixt, Martin; Berggren, Per-Olof; Juntti-Berggren, Lisa; Niklasson, Bo (2009). "Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats". Microbiology and Immunology 53 (10): 567–72. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x. PMID 19780970. 
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  72. ↑ Lin, Ching-Yih; Su, Shih-Bin; Chang, Chih-Ching; Lee, Tsung-Ming; Shieh, Jiunn-Min; Guo, How-Ran (2009). "The Association Between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Metabolic Syndrome in Taiwanese Adults". Southern Medical Journal 102 (12): 1203–8. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9. PMID 20016424. 
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  74. ↑ Arcari, Christine M.; Gaydos, Charlotte A.; Nieto, F. Javier; Krauss, Margot; Nelson, Kenrad E. (2005). "Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Acute Myocardial Infarction in Young Men in the United States Military: The Importance of Timing of Exposure Measurement". Clinical Infectious Diseases 40 (8): 1123–30. doi:10.1086/428730. PMID 15791511. 
  75. ↑ Gabrylewicz, Bogna; Mazurek, Urszula; Ochała, Andrzej; Sliupkas-Dyrda, Elektra; Garbocz, Piotr; Pyrlik, Andrzej; Mróz, Iwona; Wilczok, Tadeusz et al. (2003). "Zakażenie wirusem cytomegalii w świeżym zawale serca. Powiązania przyczynowo-skutkowe?" (in pl). Kardiologia Polska 59 (10): 283–92. PMID 14618212. 
  76. ↑ Andréoletti, Laurent; Ventéo, Lydie; Douche-Aourik, Fatima; Canas, Frédéric; De La Grandmaison, Geoffroy Lorin; Jacques, Jérôme; Moret, Hélène; Jovenin, Nicolas et al. (2007). "Active Coxsackieviral B Infection Is Associated With Disruption of Dystrophin in Endomyocardial Tissue of Patients Who Died Suddenly of Acute Myocardial Infarction". Journal of the American College of Cardiology 50 (23): 2207–14. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080. PMID 18061067. 
  77. ↑ Gaaloul, Imed; Riabi, Samira; Harrath, Rafik; Evans, Mark; Salem, Nidhal H; Mlayeh, Souheil; Huber, Sally; Aouni, Mahjoub (2012). "Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemstry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem". BMC Infectious Diseases 12: 212. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-212. PMID 22966951. 
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  80. ↑ Takahashi, M; Yamada, T (1999). "Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection". Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases 52 (3): 89–98. doi:10.7883/yoken.52.89. PMID 10507986. 
  81. ↑ Miman, Ozlem; Kusbeci, Ozge Yilmaz; Aktepe, Orhan Cem; Cetinkaya, Zafer (2010). "The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease". Neuroscience Letters 475 (3): 129–31. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057. PMID 20350582. 
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  83. ↑ Drake, Wonder Puryear; Newman, Lee S (2006). "Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine 12 (5): 359–63. doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94. PMID 16926652. 
  84. ↑ Herndon, BL; Vlach, V; Dew, M; Willsie, SK (2004). "Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis". Journal of Investigative Medicine 52 (2): 137–43. doi:10.1136/jim-52-02-23. PMID 15068230. 
  85. ↑ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2010). "The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia". World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 11 (5): 739–43. doi:10.3109/15622971003653246. PMID 20602604. 
  86. ↑ Rantakallio, P; Jones, P; Moring, J; Von Wendt, L (1997). "Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up". International Journal of Epidemiology 26 (4): 837–43. doi:10.1093/ije/26.4.837. PMID 9279617. 
  87. ↑ Brown, Alan S.; Begg, Melissa D.; Gravenstein, Stefan; Schaefer, Catherine A.; Wyatt, Richard J.; Bresnahan, Michaeline; Babulas, Vicki P.; Susser, Ezra S. (2004). "Serologic Evidence of Prenatal Influenza in the Etiology of Schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry 61 (8): 774–80. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774. PMID 15289276. 
  88. ↑ Cook, PJ; Honeybourne, D; Lip, GY; Beevers, DG; Wise, R; Davies, P (1998). "Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project". Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation 29 (2): 404–10. doi:10.1161/01.STR.29.2.404. PMID 9472881. 
  89. ↑ Ponzetto, A; Marchet, A; Pellicano, R; Lovera, N; Chianale, G; Nobili, M; Rizzetto, M; Cerrato, P (2002). "Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study". Hepato-gastroenterology 49 (45): 631–4. PMID 12063957. 
  90. ↑ Sheu, J.-J.; Chiou, H.-Y.; Kang, J.-H.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Tuberculosis and the Risk of Ischemic Stroke: A 3-Year Follow-Up Study". Stroke 41 (2): 244–9. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735. PMID 20035070. 
  91. ↑ Leonardi, S; Pavone, P; Rotolo, N; La Rosa, M (2005). "Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 24 (9): 843–5. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56. PMID 16148858. 
  92. ↑ Kang, J.-H.; Ho, J.-D.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Increased Risk of Stroke After a Herpes Zoster Attack: A Population-Based Follow-Up Study". Stroke 40 (11): 3443–8. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017. PMID 19815828. 
  93. ↑ Cleary, J; Pearson, M; Oliver, J; Chapman, S (2008). "Association Between Histoplasma Exposure and Stroke". Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases 17 (5): 312–9. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015. PMID 18755412. 
  94. ↑ Fazeli, Bahare; Ravari, Hassan; Farzadnia, Mahdi (2011). "Does a species of Rickettsia play a role in the pathophysiology of Buerger's disease?". Vascular 20 (6): 334–6. doi:10.1258/vasc.2011.cr0271. PMID 21803838. http://vascular.rsmjournals.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=21803838. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  95. ↑ Hornig, Mady; Lipkin, W. Ian (2013). "Immune-mediated animal models of Tourette syndrome". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 37 (6): 1120–1138. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.007. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 23313649. 
  96. ↑ Muller, N; Riedel, M; Blendinger, C; Oberle, K; Jacobs, E; Abelehorn, M (2004). "infection and Tourette's syndrome". Psychiatry Research 129 (2): 119–25. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009. PMID 15590039. 
  97. ↑ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2009). "Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 260 (4): 359–63. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3. PMID 19890596. 
  98. ↑ "The Role of Chronic Disease in Higher Health Costs and Lower U.S. Economic Growth". Almanac of Chronic Disease. Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease. 2009. p. 23. http://www.fightchronicdisease.org/sites/fightchronicdisease.org/files/docs/2009AlmanacofChronicDisease_updated81009.pdf. 
  99. ↑ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "PREFACE". in Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M et al.. The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83716/. 
  100. ↑ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "SUMMARY AND ASSESSMENT". in Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M et al.. The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83701/. 
  101. ↑ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "OVERVIEW". in Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M et al.. The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83680/. 



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