Physics:Isotopes of rutherfordium

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Main isotopes of Chemistry:rutherfordium (104Rf)
Iso­tope Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
261Rf syn 70 s[1] >80% α 257No
<15% ε 261Lr
<10% SF
263Rf syn 15 min[1] <100% SF
~30% α 259No
265Rf syn 1.1 min​[2] SF
266Rf syn 23 s? SF
267Rf syn 1.3 h[1] SF
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Rutherfordium (104Rf) is a synthetic element and thus has no stable isotopes. A standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was either 259Rf in 1966 or 257Rf in 1969. There are 17 known radioisotopes from 252Rf to 270Rf (three of which, 266Rf, 268Rf, and 270Rf, are unconfirmed) and several isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 267Rf with a half-life of 48 minutes, and the longest-lived isomer is 261mRf with a half-life of 74 seconds.

List of isotopes


Nuclide
[n 1] 		Z N Isotopic mass (u)
[n 2][n 3] 		Half-life
[n 4] 		Decay
mode
[n 5] 		Daughter
isotope
 Spin and
parity
[n 6][n 4]
Excitation energy[n 4]
252Rf[3] 104 148 60+90
−30 ns 		SF (various) 0+
252mRf[3] 13+4
−3 μs 		SF (≤90%) (various) (6+)
IT (≥10%) 252Rf
253Rf[4] 104 149 253.10053(44)# 9.9(12) ms SF (83%) (various) (1/2+)
α (17%) 249No
253m1Rf[n 7] 200(150)# keV 52.8(44) μs[4] SF (various) (7/2+)
253m2Rf[4] >1020 keV 660+400
−180 μs 		IT 253m1Rf
254Rf 104 150 254.10006(30)# 22.9(10) μs SF (various) 0+
254m1Rf 1300(200)# keV 4.3(7) μs IT 254Rf 8−#
254m2Rf 2000(500)# keV 247(73) μs IT 254m1Rf 16+#
255Rf[5] 104 151 255.10127(19)# 1.69(3) s SF (50.9%) (various) (9/2−)
α (49.1%) 251No
β+ (<6%) 255Lr
255m1Rf 150 keV 50(17) μs IT 255Rf (5/2+)
255m2Rf 1103 keV 29+7
−5 μs 		IT 255Rf (19/2+)
255m3Rf 1303 keV 49+13
−10 μs 		IT 255Rf (25/2+)
256Rf 104 152 256.101151(19) 6.60(5) ms SF (99.69%) (various) 0+
α (0.31%) 252No
256m1Rf 1120(100)# keV 25(2) μs IT 256Rf 4−#
256m2Rf 1400(100)# keV 17(2) μs IT 256m1Rf 8−#
256m3Rf 2400(200)# keV 27(5) μs IT 256m2Rf
257Rf 104 153 257.102917(12) 6.2+1.2
−1.0 s[6] 		α (89.3%) 253No (1/2+)
β+ (9.4%) 257mLr
SF (1.3%) (various)
257m1Rf[6] 74 keV 4.37(5) s α (80.54%) 253No (11/2−)
IT (14.2%) 257Rf
β+ (4.86%) 257Lr
SF (0.4%) (various)
257m2Rf 1155(11) keV 106(6) μs IT 257m1Rf 21/2+#
258Rf 104 154 258.103430(17) 12.5(5) ms SF (95.1%) (various) 0+
α (4.9%) 254No
258m1Rf 1200(300)# keV 2.4+2.4
−0.8 ms
[3.4(17) ms] 		IT 258Rf
258m2Rf 1500(500)# keV 15(10) μs IT 258m1Rf
259Rf 104 155 259.10560(8)# 2.63(26) s α (85%) 255No 3/2+#
β+ (15%) 259Lr
260Rf 104 156 260.10644(22)# 21(1) ms SF (various) 0+
α (<20%)[7] 256No
261Rf 104 157 261.10877(7) 2.1(2) s SF (82%) (various) 3/2+#
α (18%) 257No
261mRf[n 7] 70(100)# keV 74(5) s α 257No 11/2−#
262Rf 104 158 262.10992(24)# 210+128
−58 ms
[250(100) ms] 		SF (various) 0+
262mRf 1000(400)# keV 47(5) ms SF (various) (8−,9−)#
263Rf 104 159 263.11246(16)# 11(3) min SF (various) 3/2+#
263mRf[n 8] 5.1+4.6
−1.7 s[8] 		SF (various) 1/2#
265Rf[n 9] 104 161 265.11668(39)# 1.3+0.8
−0.3 min[9] 		SF (various) 9/2+#
266Rf[n 10][n 11] 104 162 266.11824(44)# 23 s#[10][11] SF (various) 0+
267Rf[n 12] 104 163 267.12179(62)# 48+23
−12 min[12] 		SF (various) 13/2−#
268Rf[n 10][n 13] 104 164 268.12397(71)# 1.4 s#[11][13] SF (various) 0+
270Rf[14][n 10][n 14] 104 166 20 ms#[11][15] SF (various) 0+
  1. ↑ mRf – Excited nuclear isomer.
  2. ↑ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
  3. ↑ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
  5. ↑ Modes of decay:
    SF: Spontaneous fission
  6. ↑ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Order of ground state and isomer is uncertain.
  8. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 271Hs
  9. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 285Fl
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Discovery of this isotope is unconfirmed
  11. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 282Nh
  12. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 287Fl
  13. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 288Mc
  14. ↑ Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 294Ts

Nucleosynthesis

Super-heavy elements such as rutherfordium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of rutherfordium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers.[16]

Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons.[16] In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products.[17] The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion).[18]

Hot fusion studies

The synthesis of rutherfordium was first attempted in 1964 by the team at Dubna using the hot fusion reaction of neon-22 projectiles with plutonium-242 targets:

24294Pu + 2210Ne → 264−x104Rf + 3 or 5 Neutron.

The first study produced evidence for a spontaneous fission with a 0.3 second half-life and another one at 8 seconds. While the former observation was eventually retracted, the latter eventually became associated with the 259Rf isotope.[19] In 1966, the Soviet team repeated the experiment using a chemical study of volatile chloride products. They identified a volatile chloride with eka-hafnium properties that decayed fast through spontaneous fission. This gave strong evidence for the formation of RfCl4, and although a half-life was not accurately measured, later evidence suggested that the product was most likely 259Rf. The team repeated the experiment several times over the next few years, and in 1971, they revised the spontaneous fission half-life for the isotope at 4.5 seconds.[19]

In 1969, researchers at the University of California led by Albert Ghiorso, tried to confirm the original results reported at Dubna. In a reaction of curium-248 with oxygen-16, they were unable to confirm the result of the Soviet team, but managed to observe the spontaneous fission of 260Rf with a very short half-life of 10–30 ms:

24896Cm + 168O → 260104Rf + 4 Neutron.

In 1970, the American team also studied the same reaction with oxygen-18 and identified 261Rf with a half-life of 65 seconds (later refined to 75 seconds).[20][21] Later experiments at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California also revealed the formation of a short-lived isomer of 262Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 47 ms),[22] and spontaneous fission activities with long lifetimes tentatively assigned to 263Rf.[23]

Diagram of the experimental set-up used in the discovery of isotopes 257Rf and 259Rf

The reaction of californium-249 with carbon-13 was also investigated by the Ghiorso team, which indicated the formation of the short-lived 258Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission in 11 ms):[24]

24998Cf + 136C → 258104Rf + 4 Neutron.

In trying to confirm these results by using carbon-12 instead, they also observed the first alpha decays from 257Rf.[24]

The reaction of berkelium-249 with nitrogen-14 was first studied in Dubna in 1977, and in 1985, researchers there confirmed the formation of the 260Rf isotope which quickly undergoes spontaneous fission in 28 ms:[19]

24997Bk + 147N → 260104Rf + 3 Neutron.

In 1996 the isotope 262Rf was observed in LBNL from the fusion of plutonium-244 with neon-22:

24494Pu + 2210Ne → 266−x104Rf + 4 or 5 Neutron.

The team determined a half-life of 2.1 seconds, in contrast to earlier reports of 47 ms and suggested that the two half-lives might be due to different isomeric states of 262Rf.[25] Studies on the same reaction by a team at Dubna, lead to the observation in 2000 of alpha decays from 261Rf and spontaneous fissions of 261mRf.[26]

The hot fusion reaction using a uranium target was first reported at Dubna in 2000:

23892U + 2612Mg → 264−x104Rf + x Neutron (x = 3, 4, 5, 6).

They observed decays from 260Rf and 259Rf, and later for 259Rf. In 2006, as part of their program on the study of uranium targets in hot fusion reactions, the team at LBNL also observed 261Rf.[26][27][28]

Cold fusion studies

The first cold fusion experiments involving element 104 were done in 1974 at Dubna, by using light titanium-50 nuclei aimed at lead-208 isotope targets:

20882Pb + 5022Ti → 258−x104Rf + x Neutron (x = 1, 2, or 3).

The measurement of a spontaneous fission activity was assigned to 256Rf,[29] while later studies done at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung Institute (GSI), also measured decay properties for the isotopes 257Rf, and 255Rf.[30][31]

In 1974 researchers at Dubna investigated the reaction of lead-207 with titanium-50 to produce the isotope 255Rf.[32] In a 1994 study at GSI using the lead-206 isotope, 255Rf as well as 254Rf were detected. 253Rf was similarly detected that year when lead-204 was used instead.[31]

Decay studies

Most isotopes with an atomic mass below 262 have also observed as decay products of elements with a higher atomic number, allowing for refinement of their previously measured properties. Heavier isotopes of rutherfordium have only been observed as decay products. For example, a few alpha decay events terminating in 267Rf were observed in the decay chain of darmstadtium-279 since 2004:

279110Ds → 275108Hs + α → 271106Sg + α → 267104Rf + α.

This further underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of about 1.3 h.[33][34][35]

Investigations on the synthesis of the dubnium-263 isotope in 1999 at the University of Bern revealed events consistent with electron capture to form 263Rf. A rutherfordium fraction was separated, and several spontaneous fission events with long half-lives of about 15 minutes were observed, as well as alpha decays with half-lives of about 10 minutes.[23] Reports on the decay chain of flerovium-285 in 2010 showed five sequential alpha decays that terminate in 265Rf, which further undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 152 seconds.[36]

Some experimental evidence was obtained in 2004 for a heavier isotope, 268Rf, in the decay chain of an isotope of moscovium:

288115Mc → 284113Nh + α → 280111Rg + α → 276109Mt + α → 272107Bh + α → 268105Db + α ? → 268104Rf + Electron Neutrino.

However, the last step in this chain was uncertain. After observing the five alpha decay events that generate dubnium-268, spontaneous fission events were observed with a long half-life. It is unclear whether these events were due to direct spontaneous fission of 268Db, or 268Db produced electron capture events with long half-lives to generate 268Rf. If the latter is produced and decays with a short half-life, the two possibilities cannot be distinguished.[37] Given that the electron capture of 268Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to 268Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted.[13][38] A similar mechanism is proposed for the formation of the even heavier isotope 270Rf as a short-lived daughter of 270Db (in the decay chain of 294Ts, first synthesized in 2010) which then undergoes spontaneous fission:[14]

294117Ts → 290115Mc + α → 286113Nh + α → 282111Rg + α → 278109Mt + α → 274107Bh + α → 270105Db + α ? → 270104Rf + Electron Neutrino.

According to a 2007 report on the synthesis of nihonium, the isotope 282Nh was twice observed to undergo a similar decay to form 266Db. In one case this underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of 22 minutes. Given that the electron capture of 266Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to 266Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. In the other case, no spontaneous fission event was observed; it could have been missed, or 266Db might have undergone two more alpha decays to long-lived 258Md, with a half-life (51.5 d) longer than the total time of the experiment.[10][39]

Chronology of isotope discovery

Summary of all rutherfordium isotopes known
Isotope Half-life Ref Decay mode Year discovered discovery reaction
252Rf 0 60 ns [3] SF 2024 204Pb(50Ti,2n)
252mRf 00000.000013 13 μs [3] 2024 204Pb(50Ti,2n)
253Rf 00000.013000 13 ms [40] SF, α 1997 204Pb(50Ti,n)[31]
253mRf 00000.000052 52 μs [40] SF 1995 204Pb(50Ti,n)[31]
254Rf 00000.000023 22.9 μs [40] SF 1997 206Pb(50Ti,2n)[31]
254m1Rf 00000.000004 4.3 μs [40] IT 2015
254m2Rf 00000.000247 247 μs [40] IT 2015
255Rf 00001.630000 1.63 s [40] α, SF 1975 207Pb(50Ti,2n)[32]
255m1Rf 00000.000043 43 μs [40] IT 2015
255m2Rf 00000.000016 16 μs [40] IT 2020
255m3Rf 00000.000041 41 μs [40] IT 2020
256Rf 00000.006600 6.60 ms [40] SF, α 1975 208Pb(50Ti,2n)[32]
256m1Rf 00000.000025 25 μs [40] IT 2009
256m2Rf 00000.000017 17 μs [40] IT 2009
256m3Rf 00000.000027 27 μs [40] IT 2009
257Rf 00005.000000 5.0 s [40] α, β+, SF 1969 249Cf(12C,4n)[24]
257m1Rf 00004.500000 4.5 s [40] α, β+ 1997 249Cf(12C,4n)[31]
257m2Rf 00000.000106 106 μs [40] IT 2009
258Rf 00000.012500 12.5 ms [40] SF, α 1969 249Cf(13C,4n)[24]
258m1Rf 00000.003400 3.4 ms [40] IT 2016 258Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)[41]
258m2Rf 00000.000015 15 μs [40] 2016 258Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)[41]
259Rf 00002.630000 2.63 s [40] α, β+ 1969 249Cf(13C,3n)[24]
260Rf 00000.021000 21 ms [40] SF 1985 248Cm(16O,4n)[19]
261Rf 00002.100000 2.1 s [40] SF, α 1970 244Pu(22Ne,5n)[42]
261mRf 00074.000000 74 s [40] α 1970 248Cm(18O,5n)[20]
262Rf 00000.250000 250 ms [40] SF 1985 244Pu(22Ne,4n)[25]
262mRf 00000.047000 47 ms [40] SF 1978 244Pu(22Ne,4n),
248Cm(18O,4n)[43]
263Rf 00660.0 11 min [40] SF 2003 263Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)[23]
263mRf 00008.0 8 s [44] SF 2008 263Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)
265Rf 00066.0 1.1 min [12] SF 2010 269Sg(—,α)[36]
266Rf 00023.0 23 s? [45] SF 2007? 266Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)?[10]
267Rf 02880.0 48 min [12] SF 2004 271Sg(—,α)[33]
268Rf 00001.4 1.4 s? [45] SF 2004? 268Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)?[46][47]
270Rf 00000.020000 20 ms? [45] SF 2010? 270Db(e−,Electron Neutrino)?[48]


Nuclear isomerism

Currently suggested decay level scheme for 257Rfg,m from the studies reported in 2007 by Hessberger et al. at GSI[49]

Several early studies on the synthesis of 263Rf have indicated that this nuclide decays primarily by spontaneous fission with a half-life of 10–20 minutes. More recently, a study of hassium isotopes allowed the synthesis of atoms of 263Rf decaying with a shorter half-life of 8 seconds. These two different decay modes must be associated with two isomeric states, but specific assignments are difficult due to the low number of observed events.[23]

During research on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes utilizing the 244Pu(22Ne,5n)261Rf reaction, the product was found to undergo 8.28 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 78 seconds. Later studies at GSI on the synthesis of copernicium and hassium isotopes produced conflicting data, as 261Rf produced in the decay chain was found to undergo 8.52 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 4 seconds. Later results indicated a predominant fission branch. These contradictions led to some doubt on the discovery of copernicium. The first isomer is now denoted 261mRf and the second 261Rf, as it is thought that the first nucleus belongs to a high-spin metastable state and the latter the low-spin ground state.[42] This analysis of 261Rf provided evidence for the discovery of copernicium in 1996.[50]

A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of 257Rf nuclei using the reaction 208Pb(50Ti,n)257Rf allowed the identification of an isomeric level in 257Rf. The work confirmed that 257gRf has a complex spectrum with 15 alpha lines. A level structure diagram was calculated for both isomers.[51] Similar isomers were reported for 256Rf also.[52]

Chemical yields of isotopes

Cold fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n
50Ti 208Pb 258Rf 38.0 nb, 17.0 MeV 12.3 nb, 21.5 MeV 660 pb, 29.0 MeV
50Ti 207Pb 257Rf 4.8 nb
50Ti 206Pb 256Rf 800 pb, 21.5 MeV 2.4 nb, 21.5 MeV
50Ti 204Pb 254Rf 190 pb, 15.6 MeV
48Ti 208Pb 256Rf 380 pb, 17.0 MeV

Hot fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

Projectile Target CN 3n 4n 5n
26Mg 238U 264Rf 240 pb 1.1 nb
22Ne 244Pu 266Rf + 4.0 nb
18O 248Cm 266Rf + 13.0 nb

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/reCenter.jsp?z=104&n=158. Retrieved 2008-06-06. 
  2. ↑ Utyonkov, V. K.; Brewer, N. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Dimitriev, S. N.; Grzywacz, R. K.; Itkis, M. G. et al. (30 January 2018). "Neutron-deficient superheavy nuclei obtained in the 240Pu+48Ca reaction". Physical Review C 97 (14320): 014320. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.97.014320. Bibcode: 2018PhRvC..97a4320U. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Khuyagbaatar, J.; Mosat, P.; Ballof, J. et al. (2025). "Stepping into the sea of instability: The new sub-𝜇s superheavy nucleus 252Rf". Physical Review Letters 134 (22501). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.022501. PMID 39913845. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Lopez-Martens, A.; Hauschild, K.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Asfari, Z.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Chepigin, V. I.; Dorvaux, O.; Forge, M. et al. (22 February 2022). "Fission properties of Rf 253 and the stability of neutron-deficient Rf isotopes" (in en). Physical Review C 105 (2). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L021306. ISSN 2469-9985. https://journals.aps.org/prc/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L021306. Retrieved 16 June 2023. 
  5. ↑ Chakma, R.; Lopez-Martens, A.; Hauschild, K.; Yeremin, A. V.; Malyshev, O. N.; Popeko, A. G.; Popov, Yu. A.; Svirikhin, A. I. et al. (31 January 2023). "Investigation of isomeric states in Rf 255" (in en). Physical Review C 107 (1). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.107.014326. ISSN 2469-9985. https://journals.aps.org/prc/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevC.107.014326. Retrieved 16 June 2023. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Hauschild, K.; Lopez-Martens, A.; Chakma, R.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Chepigin, V. I.; Isaev, A. V.; Izosimov, I. N.; Katrasev, D. E. et al. (18 January 2022). "Alpha-decay spectroscopy of $$^{257}$$Rf" (in en). The European Physical Journal A 58 (1): 6. doi:10.1140/epja/s10050-021-00657-8. ISSN 1434-601X. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epja/s10050-021-00657-8. Retrieved 17 June 2023. 
  7. ↑ Lazarev, Yu. A.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Rigol, J.; Shirokovsky, I. V. et al. (13 November 2000). "Decay properties of 257 No, 261 Rf, and 262 Rf" (in en). Physical Review C 62 (6). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307. ISSN 0556-2813. Bibcode: 2000PhRvC..62f4307L. https://journals.aps.org/prc/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307. Retrieved 17 June 2023. 
  8. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Shumeiko, M. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Adamian, G. G.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Ibadullayev, D.; Itkis, M. G. et al. (6 May 2024). "Synthesis and decay properties of isotopes of element 110: Ds 273 and Ds 275" (in en). Physical Review C 109 (5). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.109.054307. ISSN 2469-9985. https://journals.aps.org/prc/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevC.109.054307. Retrieved 11 May 2024. 
  9. ↑ Kovrizhnykh, N.D.. "On the way to the synthesis of new elements: 119 and 120". https://indico.gsi.de/event/21160/contributions/85071/attachments/49852/75915/TASCA25_Contribution_Kovrizhnykh.pdf. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Oganessian, Yu. Ts. et al. (2007). "Synthesis of the isotope 282113 in the Np237+Ca48 fusion reaction". Physical Review C 76 (1). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.76.011601. Bibcode: 2007PhRvC..76a1601O. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Oganessian, Yuri (8 February 2012). "Nuclei in the "Island of Stability" of Superheavy Elements". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 337 (1). doi:10.1088/1742-6596/337/1/012005. Bibcode: 2012JPhCS.337a2005O. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named PuCa2022
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "CERN Document Server: Record#831577: Chemical Identification of Dubnium as a Decay Product of Element 115 Produced in the Reaction 48Ca + 243Am". Cdsweb.cern.ch. http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/831577. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Stock, Reinhard (13 September 2013). Encyclopedia of Nuclear Physics and its Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-64926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=zVrdAAAAQBAJ&q=isotope+(270)Rf&pg=PT305. Retrieved 8 April 2018. 
  15. ↑ Fritz Peter Heßberger. "Exploration of Nuclear Structure and Decay of Heaviest Elements at GSI - SHIP". agenda.infn.it. https://agenda.infn.it/getFile.py/access?contribId=80&sessionId=7&resId=0&materialId=slides&confId=5235. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Barber, Robert C.; Gäggeler, Heinz W.; Karol, Paul J.; Nakahara, Hiromichi; Vardaci, Emanuele; Vogt, Erich (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. 
  17. ↑ Armbruster, Peter; Munzenberg, Gottfried (1989). "Creating superheavy elements". Scientific American 34: 36–42. 
  18. ↑ Fleischmann, Martin; Pons, Stanley (1989). "Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 261 (2): 301–308. doi:10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 "Discovery of the transneptunium elements", IUPAC/IUPAP Technical Report, Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 65, No. 8, pp. 1757-1814,1993. Retrieved on 2008-03-04
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Ghiorso, A.; Nurmia, M.; Eskola, K.; Eskola, P. (1970). "261Rf; new isotope of element 104". Physics Letters B 32 (2): 95–98. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(70)90595-2. Bibcode: 1970PhLB...32...95G. 
  21. ↑ Sylwester; Gregorich, K. E. et al. (2000). "On-line gas chromatographic studies of Rf, Zr, and Hf bromides". Radiochimica Acta 88 (12_2000): 837. doi:10.1524/ract.2000.88.12.837. https://zenodo.org/record/1236275. 
  22. ↑ Somerville, L. P.; Nurmia, M. J.; Nitschke, J. M.; Ghiorso, A.; Hulet, E. K.; Lougheed, R. W. (1985). "Spontaneous fission of rutherfordium isotopes". Physical Review C 31 (5): 1801–1815. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.31.1801. PMID 9952719. Bibcode: 1985PhRvC..31.1801S. https://zenodo.org/record/1233765. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Kratz; Nähler, A. et al. (2003). "An EC-branch in the decay of 27-s263Db: Evidence for the new isotope263Rf". Radiochim. Acta 91 (1–2003): 59–62. doi:10.1524/ract.91.1.59.19010. http://www.ulrich-rieth.de/publikationen/RCA0301_059.PDF. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Ghiorso (1969). "Positive Identification of Two Alpha-Particle-Emitting Isotopes of Element 104". Phys. Rev. Lett. 22 (24): 1317–1320. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.22.1317. Bibcode: 1969PhRvL..22.1317G. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3fm666nq. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Lane; Gregorich, K. et al. (1996). "Spontaneous fission properties of 104262Rf". Physical Review C 53 (6): 2893–2899. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.53.2893. PMID 9971276. Bibcode: 1996PhRvC..53.2893L. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Lazarev, Yu et al. (2000). "Decay properties of 257No, 261Rf, and 262Rf". Physical Review C 62 (6). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307. Bibcode: 2000PhRvC..62f4307L. 
  27. ↑ Gregorich, K. E. (2005). "Systematic Study of Heavy Element Production in Compound Nucleus Reactions with 238U Targets". LBNL annual report. http://rnc.lbl.gov/nsd/annualreport2005/contributions/Gregorich_LE.pdf. 
  28. ↑ Gates; Garcia, M. A. et al. (2008). "Synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes in the 238U(26Mg,xn)264−xRf reaction and study of their decay properties". Physical Review C 77 (3). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.77.034603. Bibcode: 2008PhRvC..77c4603G. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A18838. 
  29. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Demin, A. G.; Il'inov, A. S.; Tret'yakova, S. P.; Pleve, A. A.; Penionzhkevich, Yu. É.; Ivanov, M. P.; Tret'yakov, Yu. P. (1975). "Experiments on the synthesis of neutron-deficient kurchatovium isotopes in reactions induced by 50Ti Ions". Nuclear Physics A 38 (6): 492–501. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(75)91140-9. Bibcode: 1975NuPhA.239..157O. 
  30. ↑ Heßberger, F. P.; Münzenberg, G. et al. (1985). "Study of evaporation residues produced in reactions of 207,208Pb with 50Ti". Zeitschrift für Physik A 321 (2): 317–327. doi:10.1007/BF01493453. Bibcode: 1985ZPhyA.321..317H. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. K. et al. (1997). "Spontaneous fission and alpha-decay properties of neutron deficient isotopes 257−253104 and 258106". Zeitschrift für Physik A 359 (4): 415–425. doi:10.1007/s002180050422. Bibcode: 1997ZPhyA.359..415A. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Ninov, V.; Leino, M.; Münzenberg, G.; Saro, S.; Lavrentev, A. et al. (2001). "Decay properties of neutron-deficient isotopes 256,257Db, 255Rf, 252,253Lr"]". European Physical Journal A 12 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1007/s100500170039. Bibcode: 2001EPJA...12...57H. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Hofmann, S. (2009). "Superheavy Elements". The Euroschool Lectures on Physics with Exotic Beams, Vol. III Lecture Notes in Physics. 764. Springer. pp. 203–252. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85839-3_6. ISBN 978-3-540-85838-6. 
  34. ↑ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G. et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm+48Ca". Physical Review C 70 (6). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609. Bibcode: 2004PhRvC..70f4609O. http://www1.jinr.ru/Preprints/2004/160(E7-2004-160).pdf. 
  35. ↑ Oganessian, Yuri (2007). "Heaviest nuclei from 48Ca-induced reactions". Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 34 (4): R165–R242. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/4/R01. Bibcode: 2007JPhG...34R.165O. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Ellison, P.; Gregorich, K.; Berryman, J.; Bleuel, D.; Clark, R.; Dragojević, I.; Dvorak, J.; Fallon, P. et al. (2010). "New Superheavy Element Isotopes: 242Pu(48Ca,5n)285114". Physical Review Letters 105 (18). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.182701. PMID 21231101. Bibcode: 2010PhRvL.105r2701E. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc831769/. 
  37. ↑ Oganessian, Yury Ts; Dmitriev, Sergey N (2009). "Superheavy elements in D I Mendeleev's Periodic Table". Russian Chemical Reviews 78 (12): 1077–1087. doi:10.1070/RC2009v078n12ABEH004096. Bibcode: 2009RuCRv..78.1077O. 
  38. ↑ Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=yb9xTj72vNAC&pg=PA344. Retrieved 2010-09-19. 
  39. ↑ Hofmann, S. (2009). "Superheavy Elements". The Euroschool Lectures on Physics with Exotic Beams, Vol. III Lecture Notes in Physics. 764. Springer. p. 229. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85839-3_6. ISBN 978-3-540-85838-6. 
  40. ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 40.14 40.15 40.16 40.17 40.18 40.19 40.20 40.21 40.22 40.23 40.24 40.25 Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C 45 (3). doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae. https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Heßberger, F. P.; Antalic, S.; Ackermann, D.; Andel, B.; Block, M.; Kalaninova, Z.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I. et al. (2016). "Investigation of electron capture decay of 258Db and α decay of 258Rf". The European Physical Journal A 52 (11). doi:10.1140/epja/i2016-16328-2. ISSN 1434-6001. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Dressler, R.; Türler, A.. Evidence for isomeric states in 261Rf (Report). PSI Annual Report 2001. http://lch.web.psi.ch/files/anrep01/B-02heavies.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-29. 
  43. ↑ Somerville, L. P.; Nurmia, M. J.; Nitschke, J. M.; Ghiorso, A.; Hulet, E. K.; Lougheed, R. W. (1985-05-01). "Spontaneous fission of rutherfordium isotopes". Physical Review C 31 (5): 1801–1815. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.31.1801. ISSN 0556-2813. PMID 9952719. Bibcode: 1985PhRvC..31.1801S. 
  44. ↑ Dvorak, J.; Brüchle, W.; Chelnokov, M.; Düllmann, Ch. E.; Dvorakova, Z.; Eberhardt, K.; Jäger, E.; Krücken, R. et al. (2008-04-03). "Observation of the 3 n Evaporation Channel in the Complete Hot-Fusion Reaction 26Mg + 248Cm Leading to the New Superheavy Nuclide 271Hs". Physical Review Letters 100 (13). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.132503. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 18517941. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Fritz Peter Heßberger. "Exploration of Nuclear Structure and Decay of Heaviest Elements at GSI - SHIP". agenda.infn.it. https://agenda.infn.it/getFile.py/access?contribId=80&sessionId=7&resId=0&materialId=slides&confId=5235. 
  46. ↑ AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation
  47. ↑ Dmitriev, S N; Eichler, R; Bruchertseifer, H; Itkis, M G; Utyonkov, V K; Aggeler, H W; Lobanov, Yu V; Sokol, E A et al. (15 October 2004). "Chemical Identification of Dubnium as a Decay Product of Element 115 Produced in the Reaction 48Ca+243Am". https://cds.cern.ch/record/831577. 
  48. ↑ Stock, Reinhard (13 September 2013). Encyclopedia of Nuclear Physics and its Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 305. ISBN 978-3-527-64926-6. OCLC 867630862. https://books.google.com/books?id=zVrdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT305. 
  49. ↑ Streicher, B. et al. (2010). "Alpha-gamma decay studies of 261Sg and 257Rf". The European Physical Journal A 45 (3): 275–286. doi:10.1140/epja/i2010-11005-2. Bibcode: 2010EPJA...45..275S. 
  50. ↑ Barber, R. C.; Gaeggeler, H. W.; Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Vardaci, E; Vogt, E. (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112" (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/2003/pdf/7510x1601.pdf. 
  51. ↑ Qian, J. et al. (2009). "Spectroscopy of Rf257". Physical Review C 79 (6). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.79.064319. Bibcode: 2009PhRvC..79f4319Q. 
  52. ↑ Jeppesen; Dragojević, I. et al. (2009). "Multi-quasiparticle states in256Rf". Physical Review C 79 (3): 031303(R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.79.031303. Bibcode: 2009PhRvC..79c1303J. 

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