Astronomy:Arcturus

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Short description: Brightest star in the constellation Boötes

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Arcturus
Boötes IAU.svg
Red circle.svg
Arcturus in the constellation of Boötes (circled)
Observation data
Equinox J2000.0]] (ICRS)
Constellation Boötes
Pronunciation /ɑːrkˈtjʊərəs/
Right ascension  14h 15m 39.7s[1]
Declination +19° 10′ 56″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V) −0.05[2]
Characteristics
Spectral type K1.5 III Fe−0.5[3]
Apparent magnitude (J) −2.25[2]
U−B color index +1.28[2]
B−V color index +1.23[2]
R−I color index +0.65[2]
Note (category: variability): H and K emission vary.
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)−5.19[4] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: −1093.45[5] mas/yr
Dec.: −1999.40[5] mas/yr
Parallax (π)88.83 ± 0.54[1] mas
Distance36.7 ± 0.2 ly
(11.26 ± 0.07 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)−0.30±0.02[6]
Details
Mass1.08±0.06[7] M☉
Radius25.4±0.2[7] R☉
Luminosity170[8] L☉
Surface gravity (log g)1.66±0.05[7] cgs
Temperature4,286±30[7] K
Metallicity [Fe/H]−0.52±0.04[7] dex
Rotational velocity (v sin i)2.4±1.0[6] km/s
Age7.1+1.5
−1.2[7] Gyr
Other designations
Alramech, Alramech, Abramech, α Boötis, Alpha Boo, α Boo, 16 Boötis, BD+19°2777, GJ 541, HD 124897, HIP 69673, HR 5340, SAO 100944, LHS 48, GCTP 3242.00
Database references
SIMBADdata
Data sources:
Hipparcos Catalogue,
CCDM (2002),
Bright Star Catalogue (5th rev. ed.),
VizieR catalog entry

Arcturus is the brightest star in the northern constellation of Boötes. With an apparent visual magnitude of −0.05,[2] it is the fourth-brightest star in the night sky, and the brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere. The name Arcturus originated from ancient Greece; it was then cataloged as α Boötis by Johann Bayer in 1603, which is Latinized to Alpha Boötis. Arcturus forms one corner of the Spring Triangle asterism.

Located relatively close at 36.7 light-years from the Sun, Arcturus is a single[7] red giant of spectral type K1.5III—an aging star around 7.1 billion years old that has used up its core hydrogen and evolved off the main sequence. It is about the same mass as the Sun, but has expanded to 25 times its size and is around 170 times as luminous. Its diameter is 35 million kilometres. Thus far no companion has been detected.

Nomenclature

The traditional name Arcturus is Latinised from the ancient Greek Ἀρκτοῦρος (Arktouros) and means "Guardian of the Bear",[9] ultimately from ἄρκτος (arktos), "bear"[10] and οὖρος (ouros), "watcher, guardian".[11]

The designation of Arcturus as α Boötis (Latinised to Alpha Boötis) was made by Johann Bayer in 1603. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Arcturus for α Boötis.[12][13]

Observation

Arcturus is the brightest star in the constellation of Boötes.

With an apparent visual magnitude of −0.05, Arcturus is the brightest star in the northern celestial hemisphere and the fourth-brightest star in the night sky,[14] after Sirius (−1.46 apparent magnitude), Canopus (−0.72) and α Centauri (combined magnitude of −0.27). However, α Centauri AB is a binary star, whose components are both fainter than Arcturus. This makes Arcturus the third-brightest individual star, just ahead of α Centauri A (officially named Rigil Kentaurus), whose apparent magnitude is −0.01.[15] The French mathematician and astronomer Jean-Baptiste Morin observed Arcturus in the daytime with a telescope in 1635. This was the first recorded full daylight viewing for any star other than the Sun and supernovae. Arcturus has been seen at or just before sunset with the naked eye.[15]

Arcturus is visible from both of Earth's hemispheres as it is located 19° north of the celestial equator. The star culminates at midnight on 27 April, and at 9 p.m. on June 10 being visible during the late northern spring or the southern autumn.[16] From the northern hemisphere, an easy way to find Arcturus is to follow the arc of the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough in the United Kingdom ). By continuing in this path, one can find Spica, "Arc to Arcturus, then spike (or speed on) to Spica".[17][18] Together with the bright stars Spica and Regulus (or Denebola, depending on the source), Arcturus is part of the Spring Triangle asterism. With Cor Caroli, these four stars form the Great Diamond asterism.

Ptolemy described Arcturus as subrufa ("slightly red"): it has a B-V color index of +1.23, roughly midway between Pollux (B-V +1.00) and Aldebaran (B-V +1.54).[15]

η Boötis, or Muphrid, is only 3.3 light-years distant from Arcturus, and would have a visual magnitude −2.5, about as bright as Jupiter at its brightest from Earth, whereas an observer on the former system would find Arcturus with a magnitude -5.0, slightly brighter than Venus as seen from Earth, but with an orangish color.[15]

Physical characteristics

Optical image of Arcturus (DSS2 / MAST / STScI / NASA)

Based upon an annual parallax shift of 88.83 milliarcseconds as measured by the Hipparcos satellite, Arcturus is 36.7 light-years (11.26 parsecs) from the Sun. The parallax margin of error is 0.54 milliarcseconds, translating to a distance margin of error of ±0.23 light-years (0.069 parsecs).[1] Because of its proximity, Arcturus has a high proper motion, two arcseconds a year, greater than any first magnitude star other than α Centauri.

Arcturus is moving rapidly (122 km/s or 270,000 mph) relative to the Sun, and is now almost at its closest point to the Sun. Closest approach will happen in about 4,000 years, when the star will be a few hundredths of a light-year closer to Earth than it is today. (In antiquity, Arcturus was closer to the centre of the constellation.[19]) Arcturus is thought to be an old-disk star,[7] and appears to be moving with a group of 52 other such stars, known as the Arcturus stream.[20]

With an absolute magnitude of −0.30, Arcturus is, together with Vega and Sirius, one of the most luminous stars in the Sun's neighborhood. It is about 110 times brighter than the Sun in visible light wavelengths, but this underestimates its strength as much of the light it gives off is in the infrared; total (bolometric) power output is about 180 times that of the Sun. With a near-infrared J band magnitude of −2.2, only Betelgeuse (−2.9) and R Doradus (−2.6) are brighter. The lower output in visible light is due to a lower efficacy as the star has a lower surface temperature than the Sun.

As a single star, the mass of Arcturus cannot be measured directly, but models suggest it is slightly greater than that of the Sun. Evolutionary matching to the observed physical parameters gives a mass of 1.08±0.06 M☉,[7] while the oxygen isotope ratio for a first dredge-up star gives a mass of 1.2 M☉.[21] Given the star's evolutionary state, it is expected to have undergone significant mass loss in the past.[22] The star displays magnetic activity that is heating the coronal structures, and it undergoes a solar-type magnetic cycle with a duration that is probably less than 14 years. A weak magnetic field has been detected in the photosphere with a strength of around half a gauss. The magnetic activity appears to lie along four latitudes and is rotationally modulated.[23]

Arcturus is estimated to be around 6 to 8.5 billion years old,[7] but there is some uncertainty about its evolutionary status.[24] Based upon the color characteristics of Arcturus, it is currently ascending the red-giant branch and will continue to do so until it accumulates a large enough degenerate helium core to ignite the helium flash.[7] It has likely exhausted the hydrogen from its core and is now in its active hydrogen shell burning phase. However, Charbonnel et al. (1998) placed it slightly above the horizontal branch, and suggested it has already completed the helium flash stage.[24]

Size comparison between the Sun, Beta Ursae Majoris, Pollux, and Arcturus.

Spectrum

Arcturus has evolved off the main sequence to the red giant branch, reaching an early K-type stellar classification. It is frequently assigned the spectral type of K0III,[25] but in 1989 was used as the spectral standard for type K1.5III Fe−0.5,[3] with the suffix notation indicating a mild underabundance of iron compared to typical stars of its type. As the brightest K-type giant in the sky, it has been the subject of multiple atlases with coverage from the ultraviolet to infrared.[26][27]

The spectrum shows a dramatic transition from emission lines in the ultraviolet to atomic absorption lines in the visible range and molecular absorption lines in the infrared. This is due to the optical depth of the atmosphere varying with wavelength.[27] The spectrum shows very strong absorption in some molecular lines that are not produced in the photosphere but in a surrounding shell.[28] Examination of carbon monoxide lines show the molecular component of the atmosphere extending outward to 2–3 times the radius of the star, with the chromospheric wind steeply accelerating to 35–40 km/s in this region.[29]

Astronomers term "metals" those elements with higher atomic numbers than helium. The atmosphere of Arcturus has an enrichment of alpha elements relative to iron but only about a third of solar metallicity. Arcturus is possibly a Population II star.[15]

Oscillations

As one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been the subject of a number of studies in the emerging field of asteroseismology. Belmonte and colleagues carried out a radial velocity (Doppler shift of spectral lines) study of the star in April and May 1988, which showed variability with a frequency of the order of a few microhertz (μHz), the highest peak corresponding to 4.3 μHz (2.7 days) with an amplitude of 60 ms−1, with a frequency separation of c. 5 μHz. They suggested that the most plausible explanation for the variability of Arcturus is stellar oscillations.[30]

Asteroseismological measurements allow direct calculation of the mass and radius, giving values of 0.8±0.2 M☉ and 27.9±3.4 R☉. This form of modelling is still relatively inaccurate, but a useful check on other models.[31]

Possible planetary system

Hipparcos satellite astrometry suggested that Arcturus is a binary star, with the companion about twenty times dimmer than the primary and orbiting close enough to be at the very limits of humans' current ability to make it out. Recent results remain inconclusive, but do support the marginal Hipparcos detection of a binary companion.[32]

In 1993, radial velocity measurements of Aldebaran, Arcturus and Pollux showed that Arcturus exhibited a long-period radial velocity oscillation, which could be interpreted as a substellar companion. This substellar object would be nearly 12 times the mass of Jupiter and be located roughly at the same orbital distance from Arcturus as the Earth is from the Sun, at 1.1 astronomical units. However, all three stars surveyed showed similar oscillations yielding similar companion masses, and the authors concluded that the variation was likely to be intrinsic to the star rather than due to the gravitational effect of a companion. So far no substellar companion has been confirmed.[33]

Mythology

File:Hugo-de-Groot-Syntagma-Arateorum MG 0605.tif One astronomical tradition associates Arcturus with the mythology around Arcas, who was about to shoot and kill his own mother Callisto who had been transformed into a bear. Zeus averted their imminent tragic fate by transforming the boy into the constellation Boötes, called Arctophylax "bear guardian" by the Greeks, and his mother into Ursa Major (Greek: Arctos "the bear"). The account is given in Hyginus's Astronomy.[34]

Aratus in his Phaenomena said that the star Arcturus lay below the belt of Arctophylax, and according to Ptolemy in the Almagest it lay between his thighs.[35]

An alternative lore associates the name with the legend around Icarius, who gave the gift of wine to other men, but was murdered by them, because they had had no experience with intoxication and mistook the wine for poison. It is stated this Icarius, became Arcturus, while his dog, Maira, became Canicula (Procyon), although "Arcturus" here may be used in the sense of the constellation rather than the star.[36]

Cultural significance

As one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been significant to observers since antiquity.

In ancient Mesopotamia, it was linked to the god Enlil, and also known as Shudun, "yoke",[19] or SHU-PA of unknown derivation in the Three Stars Each Babylonian star catalogues and later MUL.APIN around 1100 BC.[37]

In ancient Greek the star is found in ancient astronomical literature, e.g. Hesiod's Work and Days, circa 700 BC,[19] as well as Hipparchus's and Ptolemy's star catalogs. The folk-etymology connecting the star name with the bears (Greek: ἄρκτος, arktos) was probably invented much later.[citation needed] It fell out of use in favour of Arabic names until it was revived in the Renaissance.[38]

Arcturus next to the head of Comet Donati in 1858

In Arabic, Arcturus is one of two stars called al-simāk "the uplifted ones" (the other is Spica). Arcturus is specified as السماك الرامح as-simāk ar-rāmiħ "the uplifted one of the lancer". The term Al Simak Al Ramih has appeared in Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue (translated into Latin as Al Simak Lanceator).[39] This has been variously romanized in the past, leading to obsolete variants such as Aramec and Azimech. For example, the name Alramih is used in Geoffrey Chaucer's A Treatise on the Astrolabe (1391). Another Arabic name is Haris-el-sema, from حارس السماء ħāris al-samā’ "the keeper of heaven".[40][41][42] or حارس الشمال ħāris al-shamāl’ "the keeper of north".[43]

In Indian astronomy, Arcturus is called Swati or Svati (Devanagari स्वाति, Transliteration IAST svāti, svātī́), possibly 'su' + 'ati' ("great goer", in reference to its remoteness) meaning very beneficent. It has been referred to as "the real pearl" in Bhartṛhari's kāvyas.[44]

In Chinese astronomy, Arcturus is called Da Jiao (Chinese: 大角; pinyin: Dàjiǎo; literally: 'great horn'), because it is the brightest star in the Chinese constellation called Jiao Xiu (Chinese: 角宿; pinyin: Jiǎo Xiǔ; literally: 'horn star'). Later it became a part of another constellation Kang Xiu (Chinese: 亢宿; pinyin: Kàng Xiǔ).

The Wotjobaluk Koori people of southeastern Australia knew Arcturus as Marpean-kurrk, mother of Djuit (Antares) and another star in Boötes, Weet-kurrk[45] (Muphrid).[46] Its appearance in the north signified the arrival of the larvae of the wood ant (a food item) in spring. The beginning of summer was marked by the star's setting with the Sun in the west and the disappearance of the larvae.[45] The people of Milingimbi Island in Arnhem Land saw Arcturus and Muphrid as man and woman, and took the appearance of Arcturus at sunrise as a sign to go and harvest rakia or spikerush.[47] The Weilwan of northern New South Wales knew Arcturus as Guembila "red".[47]:84

Prehistoric Polynesian navigators knew Arcturus as Hōkūleʻa, the "Star of Joy". Arcturus is the zenith star of the Hawaiian Islands. Using Hōkūleʻa and other stars, the Polynesians launched their double-hulled canoes from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands. Traveling east and north they eventually crossed the equator and reached the latitude at which Arcturus would appear directly overhead in the summer night sky. Knowing they had arrived at the exact latitude of the island chain, they sailed due west on the trade winds to landfall. If Hōkūleʻa could be kept directly overhead, they landed on the southeastern shores of the Big Island of Hawaii. For a return trip to Tahiti the navigators could use Sirius, the zenith star of that island. Since 1976, the Polynesian Voyaging Society's Hōkūleʻa has crossed the Pacific Ocean many times under navigators who have incorporated this wayfinding technique in their non-instrument navigation.

Arcturus had several other names that described its significance to indigenous Polynesians. In the Society Islands, Arcturus, called Ana-tahua-taata-metua-te-tupu-mavae ("a pillar to stand by"), was one of the ten "pillars of the sky", bright stars that represented the ten heavens of the Tahitian afterlife.[48] In Hawaii, the pattern of Boötes was called Hoku-iwa, meaning "stars of the frigatebird". This constellation marked the path for Hawaiʻiloa on his return to Hawaii from the South Pacific Ocean.[49] The Hawaiians called Arcturus Hoku-leʻa.[50] It was equated to the Tuamotuan constellation Te Kiva, meaning "frigatebird", which could either represent the figure of Boötes or just Arcturus.[51] However, Arcturus may instead be the Tuamotuan star called Turu.[52] The Hawaiian name for Arcturus as a single star was likely Hoku-leʻa, which means "star of gladness", or "clear star".[53] In the Marquesas Islands, Arcturus was probably called Tau-tou and was the star that ruled the month approximating January. The Māori and Moriori called it Tautoru, a variant of the Marquesan name and a name shared with Orion's Belt.[54]

In Inuit astronomy, Arcturus is called the Old Man (Uttuqalualuk in Inuit languages) and The First Ones (Sivulliik in Inuit languages).[55]

The Miꞌkmaq of eastern Canada saw Arcturus as Kookoogwéss, the owl.[56]

Early-20th-century Armenian scientist Nazaret Daghavarian theorized that the star commonly referred to in Armenian folklore as Gutani astgh (Armenian: Գութանի աստղ; lit. star of the plow) was in fact Arcturus, as the constellation of Boötes was called "Ezogh" (Armenian: Եզող; lit. the person who is plowing) by Armenians.[57]

In popular culture

In Ancient Rome, the star's celestial activity was supposed to portend tempestuous weather, and a personification of the star acts as narrator of the prologue to Plautus' comedy Rudens (circa 211 BC).[58][59]

The Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, compiled at the end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th century, names one of Avalokiteśvara's meditative absorptions as "The face of Arcturus".[60]

One of the possible etymologies offered for the name "Arthur" assumes that it is derived from "Arcturus" and that the late 5th to early 6th-century figure on whom the myth of King Arthur is based was originally named for the star.[59][61][62][63][64][65]

In the Middle Ages, Arcturus was considered a Behenian fixed star and attributed to the stone Jasper and the plantain herb. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign Agrippa1531 Alchameth.png under the alternate name Alchameth.[66]

Arcturus's light was employed in the mechanism used to open the 1933 Chicago World's Fair. The star was chosen as it was thought that light from Arcturus had started its journey at about the time of the previous Chicago World's Fair in 1893 (at 36.7 light-years away, the light actually started in 1896).[67]

At the height of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln observed Arcturus through a 9.6-inch refractor telescope when he visited the Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, in August, 1863.[68]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 van Leeuwen, Florian (November 2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics (Paris, France) 474 (2): 653–64. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. Bibcode: 2007A&A...474..653V. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Ducati, J. R. (2002). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system". CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues 2237: 0. Bibcode: 2002yCat.2237....0D. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). "The Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 71: 245. doi:10.1086/191373. Bibcode: 1989ApJS...71..245K. 
  4. ↑ Massarotti, Alessandro; Latham, David W.; Stefanik, Robert P.; Fogel, Jeffrey (2008). "Rotational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761 HIPPARCOS Giants and the Role of Binarity". The Astronomical Journal 135 (1): 209–231. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/1/209. Bibcode: 2008AJ....135..209M. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Perryman (1997). "HIP 69673". The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues. http://webviz.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-source=I/239/tyc_main&HIP=69673. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Carney, Bruce W. et al. (March 2008). "Rotation and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant and Red Horizontal Branch Stars". The Astronomical Journal (Paris, France: EDP Sciences) 135 (3): 892–906. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/3/892. Bibcode: 2008AJ....135..892C. 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 Ramírez, I.; Allende Prieto, C. (December 2011). "Fundamental Parameters and Chemical Composition of Arcturus". The Astrophysical Journal (Bristol, England: IOP Publishing) 743 (2): 135. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/135. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...743..135R. 
  8. ↑ Schröder, K.-P.; Cuntz, M. (April 2007). "A critical test of empirical mass loss formulas applied to individual giants and supergiants". Astronomy and Astrophysics (Bristol, England: IOP Publishing) 465 (2): 593–601. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066633. Bibcode: 2007A&A...465..593S. 
  9. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "Ἀρκτοῦρος". A Greek-English Lexicon. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29arktou%3Dros. 
  10. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "ἄρκτος". A Greek-English Lexicon. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Frktos. 
  11. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "οὖρος". A Greek-English Lexicon. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dou%29%3Dros2. 
  12. ↑ "Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 1". http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/WGSN_bulletin1.pdf. 
  13. ↑ "IAU Catalog of Star Names". http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/IAU-CSN.txt. 
  14. ↑ Kaler, James B. (2002). The Hundred Greatest Stars. New York City: Copernicus Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-387-95436-3. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discovering the Universe Through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 126–36. ISBN 978-0-471-70410-2. Bibcode: 2008bsdu.book.....S. 
  16. ↑ Schaaf, p. 257.
  17. ↑ Rao, Joe (June 15, 2007). "Arc to Arcturus, Speed on to Spica". Space.com. https://www.space.com/3953-arc-arcturus-speed-spica.html. 
  18. ↑ "Follow the arc to Arcturus, and drive a spike to Spica | EarthSky.org". earthsky.org. April 8, 2018. http://earthsky.org/tonight/follow-the-arc-to-arcturus. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Rogers, John H. (1998). "Origins of the Ancient Constellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions". Journal of the British Astronomical Association (London, England: British Astronomical Association) 108 (2): 79–89. Bibcode: 1998JBAA..108...79R. 
  20. ↑ Ramya, P.; Reddy, Bacham E.; Lambert, David L. (2012). "Chemical compositions of stars in two stellar streams from the Galactic thick disc". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 425 (4): 3188. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21677.x. Bibcode: 2012MNRAS.425.3188R. 
  21. ↑ Abia, C.; Palmerini, S.; Busso, M.; Cristallo, S. (2012). "Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in Arcturus and Aldebaran. Constraining the parameters for non-convective mixing on the red giant branch". Astronomy & Astrophysics 548: A55. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220148. Bibcode: 2012A&A...548A..55A. 
  22. ↑ Lagarde, N. et al. (August 2015). "Models of red giants in the CoRoT asteroseismology fields combining asteroseismic and spectroscopic constraints". Astronomy & Astrophysics 580: A141. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525856. A141. Bibcode: 2015A&A...580A.141L. 
  23. ↑ Sennhauser, C.; Berdyugina, S. V. (May 2011). "First detection of a weak magnetic field on the giant Arcturus: remnants of a solar dynamo?". Astronomy & Astrophysics 529: 6. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015445. A100. Bibcode: 2011A&A...529A.100S. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Pavlenko, Ya. V. (September 2008). "The carbon abundance and 12C/13C isotopic ratio in the atmosphere of Arcturus from 2.3 µm CO bands". Astronomy Reports 52 (9): 749–759. doi:10.1134/S1063772908090060. Bibcode: 2008ARep...52..749P. 
  25. ↑ Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; McFadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (2003). "Contributions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs: The Northern Sample. I". The Astronomical Journal (Bristol, England) 126 (4): 2048. doi:10.1086/378365. Bibcode: 2003AJ....126.2048G. 
  26. ↑ Griffin, R. E.; Griffin, R. (1968). A photometric atlas of the spectrum of Arcturus, λλ3600-8825Å. Cambridge: Cambridge Philosophical Society. Bibcode: 1968pmas.book.....G. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Hinkle, K.; Wallace, L. (2005). "The Spectrum of Arcturus from the Infrared through the Ultraviolet". Cosmic Abundances as Records of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis 336: 321. Bibcode: 2005ASPC..336..321H. 
  28. ↑ Tsuji, T. (2009). "The K giant star Arcturus: The hybrid nature of its infrared spectrum". Astronomy and Astrophysics 504 (2): 543. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912323. Bibcode: 2009A&A...504..543T. 
  29. ↑ Ohnaka, K.; Morales Marín, C. A. L. (November 2018). "Spatially resolving the thermally inhomogeneous outer atmosphere of the red giant Arcturus in the 2.3 μm CO lines". Astronomy & Astrophysics 620: 10. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833745. A23. Bibcode: 2018A&A...620A..23O. 
  30. ↑ Belmonte, J. A.; Jones, A. R.; Palle, P. L.; Roca Cortes, T. (1990). "Acoustic oscillations in the K2 III star Arcturus". Astrophysics and Space Science 169 (1–2): 77–84. doi:10.1007/BF00640689. ISSN 0004-640X. Bibcode: 1990Ap&SS.169...77B. 
  31. ↑ Kallinger, T.; Weiss, W. W.; Barban, C.; Baudin, F.; Cameron, C.; Carrier, F.; De Ridder, J.; Goupil, M.-J. et al. (2010). "Oscillating red giants in the CoRoT exofield: Asteroseismic mass and radius determination". Astronomy and Astrophysics 509: A77. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200811437. Bibcode: 2010A&A...509A..77K. 
  32. ↑ Verhoelst, T.; Bordé, P. J.; Perrin, G.; Decin, L. et al. (2005). "Is Arcturus a well-understood K giant?". Astronomy & Astrophysics 435 (1): 289–301. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042356. Bibcode: 2005A&A...435..289V. , and see references therein.
  33. ↑ Hatzes, A.; Cochran, W. (August 1993). "Long-period radial velocity variations in three K giants". The Astrophysical Journal 413 (1): 339–348. doi:10.1086/173002. Bibcode: 1993ApJ...413..339H. 
  34. ↑ Eratosthenes; Hyginus; Aratus (2015). Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, with Aratus's Phaenomena. Hard, Robin (transl.). Oxford University Press. pp. 5–7, 35–37. ISBN 9780198716983. https://books.google.com/books?id=7IMSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36. 
  35. ↑ Ridpath, Ian. "Star Tales Boötes". http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/bootes.html#arcturus. 
  36. ↑ Eratosthenes et al. (2015), pp. 38–40, p. 182 (note to p. 40)
  37. ↑ Rogers, John H. (1998). "Origins of the Ancient Constellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions". Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 (1): 9–28. Bibcode: 1998JBAA..108....9R. 
  38. ↑ Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky Pub. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7. 
  39. ↑ Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). "Al Achsasi Al Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 55 (8): 429. doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429. Bibcode: 1895MNRAS..55..429K. 
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  43. ↑ Davis Jr., G. A. (October 3, 1944). "The Pronunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names". Popular Astronomy 52: 13. Bibcode: 1944PA.....52....8D. 
  44. ↑ Olcott, William Tyler (2004). Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications Inc.. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-0-8021-4877-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=TIatz2DGXQwC. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Nyoongah, Mudrooroo; Narogin, Mudrooroo (1994). Aboriginal mythology : an A-Z spanning the history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the present day. London: HarperCollins. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85538-306-7. 
  46. ↑ Hamacher, Duane W.; Frew, David J. (2010). "An Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae". Journal of Astronomical History & Heritage 13 (3): 220–34. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2010.03.06. Bibcode: 2010JAHH...13..220H. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Johnson, Diane (1998). Night skies of aboriginal Australia: a noctuary. Darlington, New South Wales: University of Sydney. pp. 24, 69, 84, 112. ISBN 978-1-86451-356-1. Bibcode: 1998nsaa.book.....J. https://archive.org/details/nightskiesofabor0000john/page/24. 
  48. ↑ Makemson, Maud Worcester (1941). The Morning Star Rises: an account of Polynesian astronomy. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 199. Bibcode: 1941msra.book.....M. https://books.google.com/books?id=i5giAAAAMAAJ&q=%22arcturus%22. 
  49. ↑ Makemson 1941, p. 209.
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  51. ↑ Makemson 1941, p. 221.
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  54. ↑ Makemson 1941, p. 260.
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  56. ↑ Hagar, Stansbury (1900). "The Celestial Bear". The Journal of American Folklore 13 (49): 92–103. doi:10.2307/533799. 
  57. ↑ Daghavarian, Nazaret (1903). Ancient Armenian Religions (in Armenian). p. 19. http://greenstone.flib.sci.am/gsdl/collect/hajgirqn/book/hayoc_hin.pdf. Retrieved 12 February 2021. 
  58. ↑ Plautus. "Rudens". p. prol. 71. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "arctūrus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Darcturus.  Available on the Perseus Digital Library.
  60. ↑ Alan Roberts, Peter; Yeshi, Tulku (2013). "Karandavyuha Sutra Page 45". 84000. http://www.pacificbuddha.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Karandavyuha-Sutra.pdf. 
  61. ↑ Zimmer, Stefan (February 1, 2006) (in German). Die keltischen Wurzeln der Artussage: mit einer vollständigen Übersetzung der ältesten Artuserzählung Culhwch und Olwen. Universitätsverlag. p. 37. ISBN 978-3825351076. 
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  63. ↑ Walter, Philippe (2005) (in Italian). Artù. L'orso e il re. Edizioni Arkeios. p. 74. ISBN 978-8886495806. 
  64. ↑ Johnson, Flint (2002). The British sources of the abduction and Grail romances. University Press of America. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0761822189. https://books.google.com/books?id=V70nCDxlFgEC&pg=PA38. 
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  66. ↑ Tyson, Donald; Freake, James (1993). Three Books of Occult Philosophy. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-87542-832-1. 
  67. ↑ "The opening ceremony of A Century of Progress.". Century of Progress World's Fair, 1933-1934. University of Illinois-Chicago. January 2008. https://collections.carli.illinois.edu/digital/collection/uic_cop/id/45. 
  68. ↑ Talcott, Rich (July 14, 2014). "Lincoln and the cosmos". https://cs.astronomy.com/asy/b/astronomy/archive/2014/07/14/lincoln-and-the-cosmos.aspx. 

Further reading


External links

Coordinates: Sky map 14h 15m 39.7s, 19° 10′ 56″



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