Biology:Orexin

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Short description: Neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.

Orexin (/ɒˈrɛksɪn/), also known as hypocretin, is a neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.[1] The most common form of narcolepsy, type 1, in which the individual experiences brief losses of muscle tone ("drop attacks" or cataplexy), is caused by a lack of orexin in the brain due to destruction of the cells that produce it.[2][3] It exists in the forms of orexin-A and orexin-B.

There are 50,000–80,000 orexin-producing neurons in the human brain,[4] located predominantly in the perifornical area and lateral hypothalamus.[1][5] They project widely throughout the central nervous system, regulating wakefulness, feeding, and other behaviours.[1] There are two types of orexin peptide and two types of orexin receptor.[6][5]

Orexin was discovered in 1998 almost simultaneously by two independent groups of researchers working on the rat brain.[7][8][9] One group named it orexin, from orexis, meaning "appetite" in Greek; the other group named it hypocretin, because it is produced in the hypothalamus and bears a weak resemblance to secretin, another peptide.[2] Officially, hypocretin (HCRT) is used to refer to the genes and transcripts, while orexin is used to refer to the encoded peptides.[10] There is considerable similarity between the orexin system in the rat brain and that in the human brain.[6]

Discovery

In 1998, reports of the discovery of orexin/hypocretin were published nearly simultaneously. Luis de Lecea, Thomas Kilduff, and colleagues reported the discovery of the hypocretin system at the same time as Takeshi Sakurai from Masashi Yanagisawa's lab at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas reported the discovery of the orexins to reflect the orexigenic (appetite-stimulating) activity of these peptides. In their 1998 paper describing these neuropeptides, they also reported discovery of two orexin receptors, dubbed OX1R and OX2R.[7] Masashi Yanagisawa and Emmanuel Mignot were awarded the Breakthrough Prize in 2022 for this discovery.

The two groups also took different approaches towards their discovery. One team was interested in finding new genes that were expressed in the hypothalamus. In 1996, scientists from the Scripps Research Institute reported the discovery of several genes in the rat brain, including one they dubbed "clone 35." Their work showed that clone 35 expression was limited to the lateral hypothalamus.[11] They extracted selective DNA found in the lateral hypothalamus. They cloned this DNA and studied it using electron microscopy. Neurotransmitters found in this area were oddly similar to the gut hormone, secretin, a member of the incretin family, so they named hypocretin to stand for a hypothalamic member of the incretin family.[12] These cells were first thought to reside and work only within the lateral hypothalamus area, but immunocytochemistry techniques revealed the various projections this area truly had to other parts of the brain. A majority of these projections reached the limbic system and structures associated with it (including the amygdala, septum, and basal forebrain area).

On the other hand, Sakurai and colleagues were studying the orexin system as orphan receptors. To this end, they used transgenic cell lines that expressed individual orphan receptors and then exposed them to different potential ligands. They found that the orexin peptides activated the cells expressing the orexin receptors and went on to find orexin peptide expression specifically in the hypothalamus. Additionally, when either orexin peptide was administered to rats it stimulated feeding, giving rise to the name 'orexin'.[7]

The nomenclature of the orexin/hypocretin system now recognizes the history of its discovery. "Hypocretin" refers to the gene or genetic products and "orexin" refers to the protein, reflecting the differing approaches that resulted in its discovery.[9] The use of both terms is also a practical necessity because "HCRT" is the standard gene symbol in databases like GenBank and "OX" is used to refer to the pharmacology of the peptide system by the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology.[10]

Isoforms

There are two types of orexin: orexin-A and orexin-B (hypocretin-1 and hypocretin-2).[13][14] They are excitatory neuropeptides with approximately 50% sequence identity, produced by cleavage of a single precursor protein.[13] This precursor protein is known as prepro-orexin (or preprohypocretin) and is a 130 amino acid pre-pro-peptide encoded by the gene HRCT and located on chromosome 17 (17q21).[15] Orexin-A is 33 amino acid residues long and has two intrachain disulfide bonds; orexin-B is a linear 28 amino acid residue peptide.[13] Although these peptides are produced by a very small population of cells in the lateral and posterior hypothalamus, they send projections throughout the brain. The orexin peptides bind to the two G-protein coupled orexin receptors, OX1 and OX2, with orexin-A binding to both OX1 and OX2 with approximately equal affinity while orexin-B binds mainly to OX2 and is 5 times less potent at OX1.[16][17]

The orexins are strongly conserved peptides, found in all major classes of vertebrates.[18]

Function

The orexin system was initially suggested to be primarily involved in the stimulation of food intake, based on the finding that central administration of orexin-A and -B increased food intake. In addition, it stimulates wakefulness, regulates energy expenditure, and modulates visceral function. The orexin system has been hypothesized function by exciting other neurons that produce neurotransmitters (such as the locus coeruleus), as well as by inhibiting neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus, which is a region of the brain who's neuronal activity is imperative to proper sleep function.[19]

Brown fat activation

Many studies support that the orexin neurons regulate brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity via the sympathetic nervous system to enhance energy expenditure.[20][21] Although orexin knockout mice were reported to show maldevelopment of brown adipose tissue (BAT),[22] subsequent report has shown normal development of BAT.[23]

Wakefulness

Orexin seems to promote wakefulness. Studies indicate that a major role of the orexin system is to integrate metabolic, circadian and sleep debt influences to determine whether an animal should be asleep, or awake and active. Orexin neurons strongly excite various brain nuclei with important roles in wakefulness including the dopamine, norepinephrine, histamine and acetylcholine systems[24][25] and appear to play an important role in stabilizing wakefulness and sleep.

The discovery that an orexin receptor mutation causes the sleep disorder canine narcolepsy[26] in Doberman Pinschers subsequently indicated a major role for this system in sleep regulation. Genetic knockout mice lacking the gene for orexin were also reported to exhibit narcolepsy.[27] Transitioning frequently and rapidly between sleep and wakefulness, these mice display many of the symptoms of narcolepsy. Researchers are using this animal model of narcolepsy to study the disease.[28] Narcolepsy results in excessive daytime sleepiness, inability to consolidate wakefulness in the day (and sleep at night), and cataplexy, which is the loss of muscle tone in response to strong, usually positive, emotions. Dogs that lack a functional receptor for orexin have narcolepsy, while animals and people lacking the orexin neuropeptide itself also have narcolepsy. Organisms with narcolepsy were also found to experience REM sleep at any time of day, suggesting an alteration of function of REM sleep which can lead to hypnagogic hallucinations (hallucinations that occur as an organism goes to sleep).[29]

Central administration of orexin-A strongly promotes wakefulness, increases body temperature and locomotion, and elicits a strong increase in energy expenditure. Sleep deprivation also increases orexin-A transmission. The orexin system may thus be more important in the regulation of energy expenditure than in the regulation of food intake. In fact, orexin-deficient people with narcolepsy have increased obesity rather than decreased BMI, as would be expected if orexin were primarily an appetite stimulating peptide. Another indication that deficits of orexin cause narcolepsy is that depriving monkeys of sleep for 30–36 hours and then injecting them with the neurochemical alleviates the cognitive deficiencies normally seen with such amount of sleep loss.[30][31]

In humans, narcolepsy is associated with a specific variant of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex.[32] Furthermore, genome-wide analysis shows that, in addition to the HLA variant, people with narcolepsy also exhibit a specific genetic mutation in the T-cell receptor alpha locus.[33] In conjunction, these genetic anomalies cause the immune system to attack and kill the critical orexin neurons. Hence the absence of orexin-producing neurons in people with narcolepsy may be the result of an autoimmune disorder.[34]

Food intake

Orexin increases the craving for food, and correlates with the function of the substances that promote its production. Orexin is also shown to increase meal size by suppressing inhibitory postingestive feedback.[35] However, some studies suggest that the stimulatory effects of orexin on feeding may be due to general arousal without necessarily increasing overall food intake.[36]

Review findings suggest that hyperglycemia that occurs in mice due to a habitual high-fat diet leads to a reduction in signalling by orexin receptor-2, and that orexin receptors may be a future therapeutic target.[37] Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells and acts as a long-term internal measure of energy state. Ghrelin is a short-term factor secreted by the stomach just before an expected meal, and strongly promotes food intake. Orexin-producing cells have been shown to be inhibited by leptin (through the leptin receptor pathway), but are activated by ghrelin and hypoglycemia (glucose inhibits orexin production). Orexin, as of 2007, is claimed to be a very important link between metabolism and sleep regulation.[38][39] Such a relationship has been long suspected, based on the observation that long-term sleep deprivation in rodents dramatically increases food intake and energy metabolism, i.e., catabolism, with lethal consequences on a long-term basis. Sleep deprivation then leads to a lack of energy. In order to make up for this lack of energy, many people use high-carbohydrate and high-fat foods that ultimately can lead to poor health and weight gain. Other dietary nutrients, amino acids, also can activate orexin neurons, and they can suppress the glucose response of orexin neurons at physiological concentration, causing the energy balance that orexin maintains to be thrown off its normal cycle.[40]

Addiction

Preliminary research shows potential for orexin blockers in the treatment of cocaine, opioid, and alcohol addiction.[41][42][43] For example, lab rats given drugs which targeted the orexin system lost interest in alcohol despite being given free access in experiments.[44][45] Wild type mice that were treated with morphine were found to be at a higher risk of developing addiction when compared to mice that did not produce orexin.[46]

Studies of orexin involvement in nicotine addiction have had mixed results. For example, blocking the orexin-1 receptor with the selective orexin antagonist SB-334,867 reduced nicotine self-administration in rats and that smokers who sustained damage to the insula, a brain region that regulates cravings and contains orexin-1 receptors, lost the desire to smoke.[47] However, other studies in rats using the dual orexin receptor antagonist TCS 1102 have not found similar effects.[48]

Lipid metabolism

Orexin-A (OXA) has been demonstrated to have a direct effect on an aspect of lipid metabolism. OXA stimulates glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and that increased energy uptake is stored as lipids (triacylglycerol). OXA thus increases lipogenesis. It also inhibits lipolysis and stimulates the secretion of adiponectin. These effects are thought to be mostly conferred via the PI3K pathway because this pathway inhibitor (LY294002) completely blocks OXA effects in adipocytes.[49] The link between OXA and lipid metabolism is currently being studied.

Mood

High levels of orexin-A have been associated with happiness in human subjects, while low levels have been associated with sadness.[50] The finding suggests that boosting levels of orexin-A could elevate mood in humans, being thus a possible future treatment for disorders like depression. Orexins have also been hypothesized to aid in the development of resilience to the stress response, as their activity in the ventral palladium was found to decrease depressive symptoms by activating GABAergic neurons in the ventral palladium.[51]

It has been observed that orexin, while implicated in addiction and depression, is also involved in the display of anhedonia in ADHD. Proper functioning of orexin has been shown to have a large degree of control over behaviors that are motivated by a need to survive, such as searching for food when an organism is starving. When orexin does not function as intended, it impairs an organisms ability to feel pleasure from strongly motivated actions.[52]

Orexin neurons

Neurotransmitters

Orexinergic neurons have been shown to be sensitive to inputs from Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors,[53] cannabinoid receptor 1 and CB1–OX1 receptor heterodimers,[54][55][56] adenosine A1 receptors,[57] muscarinic M3 receptors,[58] serotonin 5-HT1A receptors,[59] neuropeptide Y receptors,[60] cholecystokinin A receptors,[61] and catecholamines,[62][63] as well as to ghrelin, leptin, and glucose.[64] Orexinergic neurons themselves regulate release of acetylcholine,[65][66] serotonin, and noradrenaline.[67]

Orexinergic neurons can be differentiated into two groups based on connectivity and functionality. Orexinergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamic group are closely associated with reward related functions, such as conditioned place preference. These neurons preferentially innervate the ventral tegmental area and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The neurons found in the ventral tegmental area, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the nucleus accumbens shell are strongly implicated in addiction and the sensitization of neurons to stimulating drugs (such as amphetamines). Orexin producing neurons in these areas have been found to be primarily indicated in seeking behavior when externally stimulated by environmental signals such as stress.[68] These neurons are in contrast to the lateral hypothalamic neurons, the perifornical-dorsal group of orexinergic neurons are involved in functions related to arousal and autonomic response. These neurons project inter-hypothalamically, as well as to the brainstem, where the release of orexin modulates various autonomic processes.[69][70]

Orexin system dysfunction

Orexin/hypocretin system dysfunction might be associated with a variety of disorders and medical conditions.[71][72]

Takotsubo syndrome

Orexin/hypocretin system dysfunction has been proposed as a novel pathophysiological model of Takotsubo syndrome (acute failure syndrome).[73]

ESSENCE

ESSENCE (Early Symptomatic Syndromes Eliciting Neurodevelopmental Clinical Examinations) is an umbrella term covering a wide range of neurodevelopmental disorders and difficulties (ADHD, developmental coordination disorder, autism spectrum disorder) as well as ESSENCE-associated conditions (behavioural phenotype syndromes, some neurological conditions and disorders, and severe early-onset mental disorders). Orexin/hypocretin system dysfunction might be associated with many symptoms in a variety of ESSENCE.[74]

Clinical uses

The orexin/hypocretin system is the target of the insomnia medication suvorexant (Belsomra), which works by blocking both orexin receptors.[75] Suvorexant has undergone three phase III trials and was approved in 2014 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) after being denied approval the year before.[76] The other FDA-approved orexin antagonists are lemborexant (Dayvigo)[77] and daridorexant (Quviviq).[78]

In 2016, the University of Texas Health Science Center registered a clinical trial for the use of suvorexant for people with cocaine dependence. They plan to measure cue reactivity, anxiety and stress.[79]

In 2022, the European Medicines Agency authorized the use of daridorexant (Quviviq) for sleep initiation and maintenance disorders.[80]

Other potential uses

Intranasal orexin is able to increase cognition in primates, especially under sleep deprived situations,[81] which may provide an opportunity for the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness.[82]

A study has reported that transplantation of orexin neurons into the pontine reticular formation in rats is feasible, indicating the development of alternative therapeutic strategies in addition to pharmacological interventions to treat narcolepsy.[83]

Orexins are also thought to have potential implications in learning and aiding in fending off diseases such as dementia and other disorders that impair cognition.[68]

Evolution

Prepro-orexin
Identifiers
SymbolOrexin
PfamPF02072
InterProIPR001704
SCOP21cq0 / SCOPe / SUPFAM
OPM protein1wso

The exon architecture of orexin is conserved in all vertebrates.[84]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "24. Orexigenic Hypothalamic Peptides Behavior and Feeding - 24.5 Orexin". Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. Springer. 2011. pp. 361–2. ISBN 9780387922713. https://books.google.com/books?id=KuAEPOPbW6MC&pg=PA361. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Stanford Center for Narcolepsy FAQ (retrieved 27-Mar-2012)
  3. ↑ "The hypocretins: excitatory neuromodulatory peptides for multiple homeostatic systems, including sleep and feeding". Journal of Neuroscience Research 62 (2): 161–168. October 2000. doi:10.1002/1097-4547(20001015)62:2<161::AID-JNR1>3.0.CO;2-1. PMID 11020209. 
  4. ↑ "Orexin receptors: pharmacology and therapeutic opportunities". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 51: 243–266. 2011-02-10. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010510-100528. PMID 21034217. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "3. Orexin Projections and Localization of Orexin Receptors". The Orexin/Hypocretin System: Physiology and Pathophysiology. Springer. 2006. p. 195. ISBN 9781592599509. https://books.google.com/books?id=OHIu9l7bAmsC&pg=PA195. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Recent trends in orexin research--2010 to 2015". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 25 (15): 2875–2887. August 2015. doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.05.012. PMID 26045032. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior". Cell 92 (4): 573–585. February 1998. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80949-6. PMID 9491897. 
  8. ↑ "The hypocretins: hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (1): 322–327. January 1998. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.1.322. PMID 9419374. Bibcode: 1998PNAS...95..322D. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "The brain chemicals that control what we enjoy". Royal Society of Chemistry. 2022-11-07. https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/the-brain-chemicals-that-control-what-we-enjoy/4016483.article. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXXVI. Orexin receptor function, nomenclature and pharmacology". Pharmacological Reviews 64 (3): 389–420. July 2012. doi:10.1124/pr.111.005546. PMID 22759794. 
  11. ↑ "Overview of the most prevalent hypothalamus-specific mRNAs, as identified by directional tag PCR subtraction". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 (16): 8733–8738. August 1996. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.16.8733. PMID 8710940. Bibcode: 1996PNAS...93.8733G. 
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  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "The physiological role of orexin/hypocretin neurons in the regulation of sleep/wakefulness and neuroendocrine functions". Frontiers in Endocrinology 4: 18. 2013. doi:10.3389/fendo.2013.00018. PMID 23508038. 
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  16. ↑ "Characterisation of the binding of [3H-SB-674042, a novel nonpeptide antagonist, to the human orexin-1 receptor"]. British Journal of Pharmacology 141 (2): 340–346. January 2004. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705610. PMID 14691055. 
  17. ↑ "Characterization of recombinant human orexin receptor pharmacology in a Chinese hamster ovary cell-line using FLIPR". British Journal of Pharmacology 128 (1): 1–3. September 1999. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0702780. PMID 10498827. 
  18. ↑ "Orexins and their receptors from fish to mammals: a comparative approach". General and Comparative Endocrinology 171 (2): 124–130. April 2011. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2011.01.001. PMID 21216246. 
  19. ↑ "Activation of the rostral nucleus accumbens shell by optogenetics induces cataplexy-like behavior in orexin neuron-ablated mice". Scientific Reports 13 (1): 2546. February 2023. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-29488-x. PMID 36781929. 
  20. ↑ "A Functional Link between AMPK and Orexin Mediates the Effect of BMP8B on Energy Balance". Cell Reports 16 (8): 2231–2242. August 2016. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.07.045. PMID 27524625. 
  21. ↑ "An orexinergic projection from perifornical hypothalamus to raphe pallidus increases rat brown adipose tissue thermogenesis". The Journal of Neuroscience 31 (44): 15944–15955. November 2011. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3909-11.2011. PMID 22049437. 
  22. ↑ "Orexin is required for brown adipose tissue development, differentiation, and function". Cell Metabolism 14 (4): 478–490. October 2011. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.08.010. PMID 21982708. 
  23. ↑ "Differential Roles of Each Orexin Receptor Signaling in Obesity". iScience 20: 1–13. October 2019. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2019.09.003. PMID 31546102. Bibcode: 2019iSci...20....1K. 
  24. ↑ "Innervation of histaminergic tuberomammillary neurons by GABAergic and galaninergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus of the rat". The Journal of Neuroscience 18 (12): 4705–4721. June 1998. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-12-04705.1998. PMID 9614245. 
  25. ↑ "Selective activation of the extended ventrolateral preoptic nucleus during rapid eye movement sleep". The Journal of Neuroscience 22 (11): 4568–4576. June 2002. PMID 12040064. 
  26. ↑ "The sleep disorder canine narcolepsy is caused by a mutation in the hypocretin (orexin) receptor 2 gene". Cell 98 (3): 365–376. August 1999. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81965-0. PMID 10458611. 
  27. ↑ "Narcolepsy in orexin knockout mice: molecular genetics of sleep regulation". Cell 98 (4): 437–451. August 1999. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81973-X. PMID 10481909. 
  28. ↑ "Behavioral state instability in orexin knock-out mice". The Journal of Neuroscience 24 (28): 6291–6300. July 2004. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0586-04.2004. PMID 15254084. 
  29. ↑ "Orexin receptors: pharmacology and therapeutic opportunities". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 51: 243–266. 2011-02-10. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010510-100528. PMID 21034217. 
  30. ↑ Alexis Madrigal (2007-12-28). "Snorting a Brain Chemical Could Replace Sleep". Wired (Wired News, Condé Nast). https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2007/12/sleep_deprivation. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  31. ↑ "Systemic and nasal delivery of orexin-A (Hypocretin-1) reduces the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in nonhuman primates". The Journal of Neuroscience 27 (52): 14239–14247. December 2007. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3878-07.2007. PMID 18160631. 
  32. ↑ "The HLA system. Second of two parts". The New England Journal of Medicine 343 (11): 782–786. September 2000. doi:10.1056/NEJM200009143431106. PMID 10984567. 
  33. ↑ "Narcolepsy is strongly associated with the T-cell receptor alpha locus". Nature Genetics 41 (6): 708–711. June 2009. doi:10.1038/ng.372. PMID 19412176. 
  34. ↑ "Narcolepsy is an autoimmune disorder, Stanford researcher says". EurekAlert. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 2009-05-03. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-05/sumc-nia042809.php. 
  35. ↑ "Orexin-A hyperphagia: hindbrain participation in consummatory feeding responses". Endocrinology 150 (3): 1202–1216. March 2009. doi:10.1210/en.2008-0293. PMID 19008313. 
  36. ↑ "Effect of lateral cerebroventricular injection of the appetite-stimulating neuropeptide, orexin and neuropeptide Y, on the various behavioral activities of rats". Brain Research 821 (2): 526–529. March 1999. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01131-2. PMID 10064841. 
  37. ↑ "Role of orexin in the regulation of glucose homeostasis". Acta Physiologica 198 (3): 335–348. March 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2009.02008.x. PMID 19489767. 
  38. ↑ "Promotion of sleep by targeting the orexin system in rats, dogs and humans". Nature Medicine 13 (2): 150–155. February 2007. doi:10.1038/nm1544. PMID 17259994. 
  39. ↑ "The neural circuit of orexin (hypocretin): maintaining sleep and wakefulness". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 8 (3): 171–181. March 2007. doi:10.1038/nrn2092. PMID 17299454. 
  40. ↑ "The physiological role of orexin/hypocretin neurons in the regulation of sleep/wakefulness and neuroendocrine functions". Frontiers in Endocrinology 4 (18): 18. 2013-03-06. doi:10.3389/fendo.2013.00018. PMID 23508038. 
  41. ↑ "Neurotransmitter Orexin Associated With Pleasure And Reward Pathways In The Brain". ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/08/050827140339.htm. 
  42. ↑ "A role for lateral hypothalamic orexin neurons in reward seeking". Nature 437 (7058): 556–559. September 2005. doi:10.1038/nature04071. PMID 16100511. Bibcode: 2005Natur.437..556H. 
  43. ↑ "Orexin/hypocretin signaling at the orexin 1 receptor regulates cue-elicited cocaine-seeking". The European Journal of Neuroscience 30 (3): 493–503. August 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06844.x. PMID 19656173. 
  44. ↑ Helen Puttick (2006-12-26). "Hope in fight against alcoholism". The Herald. http://www.worldcampaign.net/forum/view.php?id=1707. 
  45. ↑ "The orexin system regulates alcohol-seeking in rats". British Journal of Pharmacology 148 (6): 752–759. July 2006. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706789. PMID 16751790. 
  46. ↑ "Orexin System: The Key for a Healthy Life". Frontiers in Physiology 8: 357. 2017-05-31. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00357. PMID 28620314. 
  47. ↑ "Blocking A Neuropeptide Receptor Decreases Nicotine Addiction". ScienceDaily LLC. 2008-12-01. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081124174851.htm. 
  48. ↑ "The dual orexin receptor antagonist TCS1102 does not affect reinstatement of nicotine-seeking". PLOS ONE 12 (3): e0173967. 2017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173967. PMID 28296947. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1273967K. 
  49. ↑ "Orexin A stimulates glucose uptake, lipid accumulation and adiponectin secretion from 3T3-L1 adipocytes and isolated primary rat adipocytes". Diabetologia 54 (7): 1841–1852. July 2011. doi:10.1007/s00125-011-2152-2. PMID 21505958. 
  50. ↑ "Human hypocretin and melanin-concentrating hormone levels are linked to emotion and social interaction". Nature Communications 4: 1547. 2013. doi:10.1038/ncomms2461. PMID 23462990. Bibcode: 2013NatCo...4.1547B. 
    • Lay summary in: "Is this peptide a key to happiness? Findings suggests possible new treatment for depression, other disorders". Science Daily (Press release). March 7, 2013.
  51. ↑ "Orexin prevents depressive-like behavior by promoting stress resilience". Molecular Psychiatry 24 (2): 282–293. February 2019. doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0127-0. PMID 30087452. 
  52. ↑ "Neurobiology of the Orexin System and Its Potential Role in the Regulation of Hedonic Tone". Brain Sciences 12 (2): 150. January 2022. doi:10.3390/brainsci12020150. PMID 35203914. 
  53. ↑ "Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors maintain tonic inhibition of excitatory synaptic input to hypocretin/orexin neurons". The Journal of Neuroscience 24 (12): 3013–3022. March 2004. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5416-03.2004. PMID 15044540. 
  54. ↑ "Cannabinoid-hypocretin cross-talk in the central nervous system: what we know so far". Frontiers in Neuroscience 7: 256. December 2013. doi:10.3389/fnins.2013.00256. PMID 24391536. "Direct CB1-HcrtR1 interaction was first proposed in 2003 (Hilairet et al., 2003). Indeed, a 100-fold increase in the potency of hypocretin-1 to activate the ERK signaling was observed when CB1 and HcrtR1 were co-expressed ... In this study, a higher potency of hypocretin-1 to regulate CB1-HcrtR1 heteromer compared with the HcrtR1-HcrtR1 homomer was reported (Ward et al., 2011b). These data provide unambiguous identification of CB1-HcrtR1 heteromerization, which has a substantial functional impact. ... The existence of a cross-talk between the hypocretinergic and endocannabinoid systems is strongly supported by their partially overlapping anatomical distribution and common role in several physiological and pathological processes. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying this interaction.". 
     • Figure 1: Schematic of brain CB1 expression and orexinergic neurons expressing OX1 or OX2
     • Figure 2: Synaptic signaling mechanisms in cannabinoid and orexin systems
     • Figure 3: Schematic of brain pathways involved in food intake
  55. ↑ "OX1 and OX2 orexin/hypocretin receptor pharmacogenetics". Frontiers in Neuroscience 8: 57. 2014. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00057. PMID 24834023. "OX1–CB1 dimerization was suggested to strongly potentiate orexin receptor signaling, but a likely explanation for the signal potentiation is, instead, offered by the ability of OX1 receptor signaling to produce 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, a CB1 receptor ligand, and a subsequent co-signaling of the receptors (Haj-Dahmane and Shen, 2005; Turunen et al., 2012; Jäntti et al., 2013). However, this does not preclude dimerization.". 
  56. ↑ "Human orexin/hypocretin receptors form constitutive homo- and heteromeric complexes with each other and with human CB1 cannabinoid receptors". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 445 (2): 486–490. March 2014. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.026. PMID 24530395. "Orexin receptor subtypes readily formed homo- and hetero(di)mers, as suggested by significant BRET signals. CB1 receptors formed homodimers, and they also heterodimerized with both orexin receptors. ... In conclusion, orexin receptors have a significant propensity to make homo- and heterodi-/oligomeric complexes. However, it is unclear whether this affects their signaling. As orexin receptors efficiently signal via endocannabinoid production to CB1 receptors, dimerization could be an effective way of forming signal complexes with optimal cannabinoid concentrations available for cannabinoid receptors.". 
  57. ↑ "Adenosine inhibits activity of hypocretin/orexin neurons by the A1 receptor in the lateral hypothalamus: a possible sleep-promoting effect". Journal of Neurophysiology 97 (1): 837–848. January 2007. doi:10.1152/jn.00873.2006. PMID 17093123. 
  58. ↑ "Cholinergic regulation of orexin/hypocretin neurons through M(3) muscarinic receptor in mice". Journal of Pharmacological Sciences 106 (3): 485–491. March 2008. doi:10.1254/jphs.FP0071986. PMID 18344611. 
  59. ↑ "Serotonergic regulation of the orexin/hypocretin neurons through the 5-HT1A receptor". The Journal of Neuroscience 24 (32): 7159–7166. August 2004. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1027-04.2004. PMID 15306649. 
  60. ↑ "Neuropeptide Y inhibits hypocretin/orexin neurons by multiple presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms: tonic depression of the hypothalamic arousal system". The Journal of Neuroscience 24 (40): 8741–8751. October 2004. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2268-04.2004. PMID 15470140. 
  61. ↑ "Cholecystokinin activates orexin/hypocretin neurons through the cholecystokinin A receptor". The Journal of Neuroscience 25 (32): 7459–7469. August 2005. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1193-05.2005. PMID 16093397. 
  62. ↑ "Direct and indirect inhibition by catecholamines of hypocretin/orexin neurons". The Journal of Neuroscience 25 (1): 173–183. January 2005. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4015-04.2005. PMID 15634779. 
  63. ↑ "Orexin neurons are directly and indirectly regulated by catecholamines in a complex manner". Journal of Neurophysiology 96 (1): 284–298. July 2006. doi:10.1152/jn.01361.2005. PMID 16611835. 
  64. ↑ "Orexin neuronal circuitry: role in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 29 (1): 70–87. January 2008. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.08.001. PMID 17910982. 
  65. ↑ "Hypocretin-1 causes G protein activation and increases ACh release in rat pons". The European Journal of Neuroscience 18 (7): 1775–1785. October 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02905.x. PMID 14622212. 
  66. ↑ "Food-elicited increases in cortical acetylcholine release require orexin transmission". Neuroscience 149 (3): 499–507. November 2007. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.07.061. PMID 17928158. 
  67. ↑ "Pharmacological characterisation of the orexin receptor subtype mediating postsynaptic excitation in the rat dorsal raphe nucleus". Neuropharmacology 46 (8): 1168–1176. June 2004. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.02.014. PMID 15111023. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 "Multiple roles for orexin/hypocretin in addiction". Orexin/Hypocretin System. Progress in Brain Research. 198. 2012. pp. 79–121. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-59489-1.00007-0. ISBN 9780444594891. 
  69. ↑ "Lateral hypothalamic orexin/hypocretin neurons: A role in reward-seeking and addiction". Brain Research 1314: 74–90. February 2010. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.09.106. PMID 19815001. 
  70. ↑ "Orexin/hypocretin system and autonomic control: new insights and clinical correlations". Neurology 82 (3): 271–278. January 2014. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000045. PMID 24363130. 
  71. ↑ "Involvement of orexinergic system in psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders: A scoping review". Brain Circulation 6 (2): 70–80. 26 Jun 2020. doi:10.4103/bc.bc_42_19. PMID 33033776. 
  72. ↑ "Physiological Role of Orexinergic System for Health". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (14): 8353. July 2022. doi:10.3390/ijerph19148353. PMID 35886210. 
  73. ↑ "Orexin/hypocretin system dysfunction in patients with Takotsubo syndrome: A novel pathophysiological explanation". Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 9: 1016369. 3 Nov 2022. doi:10.3389/fcvm.2022.1016369. PMID 36407467. 
  74. ↑ "Orexin/Hypocretin System Dysfunction in ESSENCE (Early Symptomatic Syndromes Eliciting Neurodevelopmental Clinical Examinations)". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 18: 2683–2702. 15 Nov 2022. doi:10.2147/NDT.S358373. PMID 36411777. 
  75. ↑ "BELSOMRA® (suvorexant) C-IV". Belsomra. http://www.belsomra.com/. 
  76. ↑ "FDA approves new type of sleep drug, Belsomra". Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2014-08-31. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm409950.htm. 
  77. ↑ "Dayvigo- lemborexant tablet, film coated". DailyMed. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=7074cb65-77b3-45d2-8e8d-da8dc0f70bfd. 
  78. ↑ ""Quviviq- daridorexant tablet". https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2022/214985s000lbl.pdf. 
  79. ↑ Clinical trial number NCT02785406 for "Role of the Orexin Receptor System in Stress, Sleep and Cocaine Use" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  80. ↑ "Quviviq". 22 February 2022. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/quviviq. 
  81. ↑ "Sleep disorders, obesity, and aging: the role of orexin". Ageing Research Reviews 20: 63–73. March 2015. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.11.001. PMID 25462194. 
  82. ↑ "Narcolepsy: current treatment options and future approaches". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 4 (3): 557–566. June 2008. PMID 18830438. 
  83. ↑ "Transplantation of hypocretin neurons into the pontine reticular formation: preliminary results". Sleep 27 (8): 1465–1470. December 2004. doi:10.1093/sleep/27.8.1465. PMID 15683135. PMC 1201562. http://www.journalsleep.org/Articles/270802.pdf. 
  84. ↑ "Organization of the orexin/hypocretin system in the brain of two basal actinopterygian fishes, the cladistians Polypterus senegalus and Erpetoichthys calabaricus". Peptides 61: 23–37. November 2014. doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2014.08.011. PMID 25169954. 

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