Biology:Psilocybe

From HandWiki
Short description: Genus of fungi

Psilocybe
Psilocybe semilanceata
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Type species
Psilocybe semilanceata
(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Species

List of Psilocybe species

Synonyms[1]
  • Agaricus "trib." Psilocybe Fr. (1821)

Psilocybe (/ˌsaɪloʊˈsaɪbi/ SY-loh-SY-bee)[2] is a genus of gilled mushrooms, growing worldwide, in the family Hymenogastraceae. Most or nearly all species contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

Taxonomy

Taxonomic history

P. tampanensis with spore prints

A 2002 study of the molecular phylogeny of the agarics[3] indicated that the genus Psilocybe as then defined was polyphyletic, falling into two distinct clades that are not directly related to each other. The blue-staining hallucinogenic species constituted one clade and the non-bluing species the other. The previous type species of the genus, Psilocybe montana (now Deconica montana), was in the non-bluing clade, but in 2010 the type species was changed to P. semilanceata, a member of the bluing clade. A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of the Agaricales by Matheny and colleagues, further demonstrated the separation of the bluing and non-bluing clades of Psilocybe in a larger, strongly supported phylogenetic tree of the Agaricales.[4]

Psilocybe had been placed taxonomically in the agaric family Strophariaceae based upon its spore and pileipellis morphology. The phylogenetic study by Matheny et al., placed the non-bluing Psilocybe and its close relatives in a basal position within the Strophariaceae, a sister taxon to a clade containing the other genera within that family. The bluing Psilocybe, however, form a clade that is sister to Galerina in the newly revised family, Hymenogastraceae that used to be restricted to secotioid, false-truffles.[4] The phylogenetic study by Moncalvo, et al. confirmed that the agaric genus Melanotus is simply a subgroup of the non-bluing Psilocybe, all of which are placed in Deconica, and also pointed to a close relationship between the latter genus and the genera Kuehneromyces and Phaeogalera.[3]

Modern classification

In 2007, a paper by Redhead et al. proposed conserving the genus Psilocybe with Psilocybe semilanceata as its type species.[5] The suggestion was accepted by unanimous vote of the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi of the International Botanical Congress in 2010, meaning that P. semilanceata (a member of the bluing clade) now serves as the type species of the genus.[6] Since P. semilanceata is now the type species of the genus, the bluing hallucinogenic clade remained in the genus Psilocybe (Hymenogastraceae) while the non-bluing clade were transferred to the genus Deconica (Strophariaceae).[7] However, it has been demonstrated that P. fuscofulva, a species that used to be known as P. atrobrunnea, belongs to the genus Psilocybe s.s. but does not contain psychotropic compounds.[8] Negative results have also been published for P. fimetaria.[9]

Etymology

The genus name Psilocybe is a compound of the Greek elements ψιλός (psilós) "bare" / "naked" and κύβη (kúbe) "head" / "swelling",[10] giving the meaning "bare-headed" (i.e. bald) referring to the mushroom's detachable pellicle (loose skin over the cap), which can resemble a bald pate.

Description

P. ovoideocystidiata, Washington

Psilocybe fruit bodies are typically small, nondescript mushrooms with a typical "little brown mushroom" morphology. Macroscopically, they are characterized by their small to occasionally medium size, brown to yellow-brown coloration, with a typically hygrophanous cap, and a spore print-color that ranges from lilac-brown to dark purple-brown (though rusty-brown colored varieties are known in at least one species).[11] Hallucinogenic species typically have a blue-staining reaction when the fruit body is bruised. Microscopically, they are characterized by pileipellis with hyphae that run parallel to the pileus surface, forming a cutis, by their lack of chrysocystidia, and by spores that are smooth, ellipsoid to rhomboid to subhexagonal in shape, with a distinct apical germ pore. Ecologically, all species of Psilocybe are saprotrophs, growing on various kinds of decaying organic matter.[12][13]

Distribution and habitat

Global distribution of over 100 psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms[14]: 207 
Approximate known range of Psilocybe cyanescens

Geographically, species in this genus are found throughout the world in most biomes.[15] The greatest species diversity seems to be in the neotropics, from Mesoamerica through Brazil and Chile .[14] Psilocybe are found in a variety of habitats and substrates. Many of the species found in temperate regions, such as Psilocybe cyanescens, seem to have an affinity for landscaped areas mulched with woodchips and are actually rather rare in natural settings removed from human habitation. Contrary to popular belief, only a minority of Psilocybe species, such as P. cubensis and P. subcubensis, grow directly on feces.[16] Many other species are found in habitats such as mossy, grassy, or forest humus soils.

Psychoactivity

Biochemistry and pharmacology

Psilocybin molecule
Psilocin molecule

The psilocybin molecule is indirectly responsible for the hallucinogenic properties of the Psilocybe. This compound, as well as all other indole alkaloids, are derived from the amino acid tryptophan, being the only amino acid with the indole-amine ring. Tryptophan is converted to tryptamine by decarboxylation.[17] Two methylation steps occur producing DMT, another psychedelic compound.[17] Hydroxylation of this compound produces the more potent hallucinogen psilocin, followed by phosphorylation yielding psilocybin.[17] After ingestion of the psilocybin compound alkaline phosphatases present in the body's digestive system, kidneys, and possibly in the blood readily cleave the phosphoryl ester bond from psilocybin, yielding the hydroxyl compound, psilocin.[18] Psilocin is the chemical primarily responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of the Psilocybe.[18] The blue-staining species of Psilocybe are characterized by the presence of psilocin and psilocybin. This blue-staining reaction occurs after the fruit body has been injured, particularly near the base of the stalk.[19] This reaction is thought to be due to the oxidation of psilocybin after the outer surface of the fruit body has been breached.[20] The degree of bluing in a Psilocybe fruit body roughly correlates with the concentration of psilocin in the mushroom.[21] Psilocybin is chemically far more stable than psilocin, the latter compound being largely lost when the mushroom is heated or dried.[22]

The chemical structure of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, is similar to that of psilocin. The latter differs mainly by the location of one of the hydroxyls, and the addition of two methyl groups that make the molecule lipophilic (fat soluble), ergo capable of crossing the lipid membrane sheaths of the central nervous system.[23] After psilocybin has been ingested and dephosphorylated, to psilocin, the mechanism it uses in the brain has a direct agonist effect on the 5-HT serotonin receptors.[18] To explain this effect, the psilocin molecule essentially mimics the serotonin molecule, binding to the 5-HT receptors and initiating the same response as the serotonin. This effect explains the euphoria experienced by ingestion of this "agonist." Initially, hallucinogens were thought to blockade these serotonin neurotransmitters, but persistent research led to this agonist effect conclusion.[18]

Woolley and Campbell conducted research to determine whether the depletion of the hormone serotonin had a direct effect on mental disorders and that hallucinations might be due to an excess of serotonin.[24] Their results led them to study chemicals analogous to serotonin. They found that the psychoactive chemicals psilocybin and psilocin exhibited serotonin-like effects, however as dosage increased, these compounds acted as serotonin antagonists, psilocybin being comparable to the most potent antagonist yet discovered.[24] This is a plausible basis for the psychological effects of these hallucinogenic compounds.

Even though these chemicals are psychoactive and therefore the basidiomycete deemed toxic, there have been no reports of fatalities or induced internal organ damage directly associated with ingestion of these chemicals.[25] Misidentification of the fruit body could lead to ingestion of a lethal fungus.

Some psychoactive species contain baeocystin, norbaeocystin and β‐carboline monoamine oxidase inhibitors in addition to psilocin and psilocybin.[26]

Medical and psychiatric aspects

The medicinal uses of the Psilocybe was recorded by Native Americans of Central America. Shamans, or curanderas would avidly ingest the "sacred mushrooms" for the extrasensory perceptual effects it gave them in order to better assess problems faced in their society.[27] The observed effects of the alkaloids found in these mushrooms has given rise to research into their possible uses for psychiatric medicine.[27] For details on contemporary research, see: Psilocybin: Medical research.

History and ethnography

P. zapotecorum, Mexico

Hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the aboriginal Mexicans as teonanácatl (literally "divine mushroom")[28] and were reportedly served at the coronation of Moctezuma II in 1502. After the Spanish conquest of the Americas, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-Christian traditions, was forcibly suppressed and driven underground.[29]

By the 20th century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non-Native Americans to have disappeared entirely. However, in 1955, Valentina Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957.[30] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first reported psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms.[31] There is some skepticism as to whether or not these "sacred mushrooms" were actually in the genus Psilocybe. However, according to Heim's research in Mexico, he identified three species of Psilocybe that he believed were used in these native ceremonies. The species identified by Heim were; P. mexicana, P. caerulescens, and P. zapotecorum.[32][33][34] are a variety of Psilocybe mushrooms that make up the teonanácatl group of hallucinogenic mushrooms, including P. cubensis.[35] Isauro Nava Garcia, a Mazotec man, provided guidance to Heim while Heim conducted his field and culture work.[36] Garcia was an avid observer of the fungi in his environment while identifying specific characteristics about the fruit body of the Psilocybe his ancestors utilized, as well as knowing where they could be found.[36]

At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[37]

The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Timothy Leary, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating P. cubensis in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs.

Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination
P. mexicana, Mexico
Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

The purified chemicals psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule II drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[38] However, the UN drug treaties do not apply to cultivation, preparation, or international transport of psilocybin mushrooms.

Internationally, the two chemicals are generally considered controlled substances. However, there is much ambiguity about what is considered a "container" of these compounds in several countries (e.g. Brazil), the chemicals themselves are listed as controlled substances, but the mushrooms that contain the chemicals are not, therefore deemed legal.[39] In the United States, possession of Psilocybe mushroom fruiting bodies is illegal in every state except for Florida. This is because the Supreme Court of Florida does not believe that these mushrooms could "reasonably be found to be containers of the schedule I substance, psilocybin".[40]

In the United States there is no federal law mentioning the possession of Psilocybe spores, this is because only the psilocybin and psilocin compounds are considered Schedule I drugs and there is no presence of these compounds in the spores themselves, only in the fruiting body of the cultivated spores. However, there are several US states that have actually prohibited possession of these spores because they can be cultivated to produce these hallucinogenic, Schedule I drugs. These states includes California, Georgia,[41] and Idaho.[39][42]

However, possession of the spores by a qualified mycologist in California is legal if being put to use for research purposes, which must be approved by Research Advisory Panel.[43] If not authorized by law, possession of spores or cultivation of fruiting bodies of the Psilocybe is punishable to not more than one year in county jail or state prison.[43]

Psilocybin mushrooms as well as other "soft drugs" which are stronger than cannabis but not synthetic, are legally available through smart shops in the Netherlands. Only the truffle form of magic mushrooms (such as P. tampanensis) are currently legal, but these still contain the active ingredients and produce similar effect as the caps and stalks.[44]

Notable species

Main article: Biology:List of Psilocybe species
Psilocybe semilanceata

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm. :21, 71, 1871". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=49165&Fields=All. 
  2. ↑ "psilocybe". 2012. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Psilocybe. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 23 (3): 357–400. 2002. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00027-1. PMID 12099793. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview". Mycologia 98 (6): 982–95. 2006. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982. PMID 17486974. 
  5. ↑ "Propose to conserve the name Psilocybe (Basidiomycota) with a conserved type". Taxon 56 (1): 255–7. 2007. 
  6. ↑ Norvell L. (2007). "Report of the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi: 15". Taxon 59 (1): 291–3. doi:10.1002/tax.591029. 
  7. ↑ "The genus Deconica (W. G. SM.) P. KARST. in Europe – new combinations". Österreichische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde 18: 207–10. 2009. http://www.entoloma.nl/pdf/Noordeloos_Deconica.pdf. 
  8. ↑ Borovička, J.; Oborník, M.; Stříbrný, J.; Noordeloos, M. E.; Sánchez, L. P.; Gryndlger, M. (2014). "Phylogenetic and chemical studies in the potential psychotropic species complex of Psilocybe atrobrunnea with taxonomic and nomenclatural notes" (PDF). Persoonia 34 (6): 1–9. doi:10.3767/003158515X685283. PMID 26240441. PMC 4510267. http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/fasttrack/nhn/00315850/psilocybe_1413880097736.pdf?expires=1417164303&id=guest&checksum=5FCA6C68C49863449260E4CDC09EBACE. Retrieved November 28, 2014. 
  9. ↑ Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids" (in en). International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMID 36430546. 
  10. ↑ Cornelis S (1826). Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections. p. 358. https://books.google.com/books?id=2eUIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA358. 
  11. ↑ Paye Y. (2003). Genesis of the PF Redspore psilocybe. Erowid.org.
  12. ↑ Guzmán (1983), p. 22.
  13. ↑ How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus VI: Modern Genera. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. 1988. ISBN 978-0-916422-76-9. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 198–280. 1998. http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. Retrieved 2012-12-15. 
  15. ↑ Guzmán (1983), pp. 22–32.
  16. ↑ Guzmán (1983), p. 31.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Baeocystin and norbaeocystin: new analogs of psilocybin from Psilocybe baeocystis". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 57 (10): 1667–71. 1968. doi:10.1002/jps.2600571007. PMID 5684732. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Nichols D. (2004). "Hallucinogens". Pharmacology & Therapeutics 101 (2): 131–81. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002. PMID 14761703. 
  19. ↑ Dewick P. (2009). Medicinal Natural Products. John Wiley & Sons. p. 368. 
  20. ↑ Stamets, 1996, p. 56.
  21. ↑ Stamets, 1996, p. 53. "The bluing reaction is obvious in the more potent species, especially those high in psilocin. In general, the less psilocin there is in a species, the more subtle the bluing reaction."
  22. ↑ Gotvaldová, Klára; Hájková, Kateřina; Borovička, Jan; Jurok, Radek; Cihlářová, Petra; Kuchař, Martin (2020). "Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis" (in en). Drug Testing and Analysis 13 (2): 439–446. doi:10.1002/dta.2950. ISSN 1942-7611. PMID 33119971. 
  23. ↑ May P. "Psilocybin and Mescaline". University of Bristol. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/psilocybin/psilocybinv.htm. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Serotonin-like and antiserotonin properties of psilocybin and psilocin". Science. 3518 136 (3518): 777–8. 1962. doi:10.1126/science.136.3518.777. PMID 14008293. Bibcode: 1962Sci...136..777W. 
  25. ↑ "Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States". Pharmacology & Therapeutics 102 (2): 131–8. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.03.003. PMID 15163594. 
  26. ↑ Blei, Felix; Dörner, Sebastian; Fricke, Janis; Baldeweg, Florian; Trottmann, Felix; Komor, Anna; Meyer, Florian; Hertweck, Christian et al. (2020). "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in "Magic" Mushrooms" (in en). Chemistry – A European Journal 26 (3): 729–734. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. ISSN 1521-3765. PMID 31729089. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Emmons, Chester W. (Jan–Feb 1961). "Mycology and Medicine". Mycologia 53 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2307/3756126. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0053/001/0001.htm.  closed access
  28. ↑ Wasson RG. (1980). The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-068443-0. 
  29. ↑ Díaz JL. (1977). "Ethnopharmacology of sacred psychoactive plants used by the Indians of Mexico". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 17: 647–75. doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.17.040177.003243. PMID 17363. 
  30. ↑ Wasson RG. (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (June 10).  article reproduced online
  31. ↑ "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" (in German). Experientia 14 (3): 107–12. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. 
  32. ↑ "Les champignons divinatoires utilises dans les rites des Indiens Mazateques recueillis au cours de leur premier voyage au Mexique, en 1953, par Mme Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and M. R. Gordon Wasson" (in French). Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 242: 965, 968. 1956. 
  33. ↑ "Les champignons divinatoires recueillis par Mme Valentina Pavlovna Wasson et M. R. Gordon Wasson au cours de leurs missions de 1954 et 1955 dans les pays mije, mazateque, zapoteque et nahua du Mexique meridional et central" (in French). Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 242: 1389–95. 1956. 
  34. ↑ "Les agarics hallucinogenes du genre Psilocybe" (in French). Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 244: 659–700. 1957. 
  35. ↑ Singer, Rolf (1951). "Diagnoses Fungorum novorum Agaricalium". Lilloa 22: 472, 506. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Singer, Rolf; Smith, Alexander H. (Mar–Apr 1958). "Mycological investigations on teonanacatl, the Mexican hallucinogenic mushroom. Part II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes". Mycologia 50 (2): 262–303. doi:10.2307/3756197. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0050/002/0262.htm.  closed access
  37. ↑ Guzmán G. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: an overview". Economic Botany 62 (3): 404–12. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8. 
  38. ↑ "Archived copy". http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Erowid. "Legality of Psilocybin Mushroom Spores". Erowid. http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_law8.shtml. 
  40. ↑ "Richard D. Fiske vs. Florida". Erowid. http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_law3.shtml. 
  41. ↑ "Georgia Code-Crimes and Offenses- Title 16, Section 16-13-71". http://law.onecle.com/georgia/16/16-13-71.html. 
  42. ↑ Idaho Legislature. "Title 37, Chapter 27 Uniform Controlled Substances". Idaho Legislature. http://legislature.idaho.gov/idstat/Title37/T37CH27SECT37-2705.htm. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "2005 California Health and Safety Code Sections 11390-11392 Article 7. Mushrooms". Justia US Law. http://law.justia.com/codes/california/2005/hsc/11390-11392.html. 
  44. ↑ "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59 (3): 423–9. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914. 
  45. ↑ Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons. 1996. p. 536. ISBN 978-0-471-52229-4. 
  46. ↑ A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: a Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists. London, UK: Manson Publishing Ltd. 1989. pp. 115–6. ISBN 978-0-7234-1576-3. 

Cited books

  • Guzmán G. (1983). The genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Nova Hedwigia Beihefte. 74. Berlin, Germany: J. Cramer. ISBN 978-3-7682-5474-8. 
  • Stamets P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-839-7. 

Further reading

  • Emboden, William A. (1979). Narcotic plants (Rev. and enl ed.). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-535480-9. OCLC 4832354. 
  • Furst, Peter T. (1976). Hallucinogens and culture. San Francisco. ISBN 0-88316-517-1. OCLC 2120984. 
  • Haard, Richard; Haard, Karen (1977). Poisonous & hallucinogenic mushrooms (2d ed.). Mayne Island, B.C.: Cloudburst Press. ISBN 0-88930-005-4. OCLC 3131519. 
  • McKenna, Terence K. (1993). Food of the gods : the search for the original tree of knowledge : a radical history of plants, drugs, and human evolution. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-37130-4. OCLC 45078669. 
  • Metzner, Ralph; Darling, Diane (2005). Sacred mushroom of visions : teonanácatl : a sourcebook on the psilocybin mushroom. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street Press. ISBN 978-1-59477-044-9. OCLC 62216799. 
  • Ott, Jonathan; Bigwood, Jeremy (1978). Teonanácatl : hallucinogenic mushrooms of North America : extracts from the Second International Conference on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms, held October 27-30, 1977, near Port Townsend, Washington. Seattle: Madrona Publishers. ISBN 0-914842-32-3. OCLC 4135392. 
  • Oss, O. T.; Oeric, O. N. (1976). Psilocybin, magic mushroom grower's guide : a handbook for psilocybin enthusiasts. Berkeley, Calif.: And/Or Press. ISBN 0-915904-13-6. OCLC 2647420. 
  • Stamets, Paul. (1996). Psilocybin mushrooms of the world : an identification guide. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815-839-7. OCLC 34514700. 

Taxonomy

History and ethnography

Other

Short description: Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids
Psilocybe semilanceata

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Psilocybe, Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs. They may be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but are more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout the Americas.

History

Early

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

Rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence.[1] Prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago.[2] The hallucinogenic[3] species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.[4] Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Guatemala.[5] A statuette dating from c. 200 CE depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in the west Mexican state of Colima in a shaft and chamber tomb. A Psilocybe species known to the Aztecs as teōnanācatl (literally "divine mushroom": the agglutinative form of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Nahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.[6] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.[7]

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[5] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[8]

Modern

Psilocybe allenii

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[9]

Psilocybe mexicana

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[10] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe,[11] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[12][13]

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism.[14] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[15]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[8] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[16] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Occurrence

Non-Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include Pluteus salicinus (left), Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center), and Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus subbalteatus (right)

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1).[17][18] Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms[19]

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[20] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[21] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[17] P. cubensis is the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[22] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[20]

Composition

Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[23] Its principal component is psilocybin,[24] which is converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effects.[25][26] Besides psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present, which can modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[23] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[23] Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in different genera, such as Psilocybe,[27]Cyclocybe,[28] and Hygrophorus.[29] Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derived β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.

Effects

Despite risks, mushrooms do much less damage in the UK than other recreational drugs.
Psilocybin
Psilocin

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects.[30] Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.[31] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[32] The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[33]

Sensory

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[34] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[34] Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[35]

Emotional

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent upon set and setting.[34] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[34] A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'[36] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose. In addition to the risks associated with the ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to use psilocybin mushrooms also risk poisoning if one of the wide varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.[37]

Dosage

A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms

The dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species but is typically around 0.5–2.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom.[38] Usual doses of the common species Psilocybe cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose.[39] Above 5 g is often considered a heavy dose, with 5.0 grams of dried mushroom often being referred to as a "heroic dose".[40][41]

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or variety.[42] The species Psilocybe azurescens contains the most psilocybin (up to 1.78%).

Toxicology

The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, the psilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins; psilocybin and psilocin.[43] The median lethal dose, also known as “LD50”, of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.[44]

From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult to overdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than 1.2 kg of dried Psilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.[38]

Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acute serotonin syndrome.[45] A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.[46]

Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.[45] However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.[47]

Clinical research

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders.[48][49] In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[50]

Legality

Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.

After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.[51] In 2022 Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,[52] though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.[53][54] Other jurisdictions in the United States where psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized include Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan; Oakland and Santa Cruz, California; Easthampton, Somerville, Northampton, and Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Washington, DC.[55]

Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.[56] This is because fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.[57] A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.[58]

See also

Citations

  1. ↑ Samorini, Giorgio (1992). "The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 BP)". Integration. Zeitschrift für geistbewegende Pflanzen und Kultur. 2/3: 69–75. https://www.academia.edu/79946409. 
  2. ↑ Akers, Brian P.; Ruiz, Juan Francisco; Piper, Alan; Ruck, Carl A. P. (2011). "A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?1". Economic Botany 65 (2): 121–128. doi:10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5. 
  3. ↑ Abuse, National Institute on Drug (April 22, 2019). "Hallucinogens DrugFacts". https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hallucinogens. 
  4. ↑ F.J. Carod-Artal (January 1, 2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurología (English Edition) 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010. PMID 21893367. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Stamets (1996), p. 11.
  6. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 7.
  7. ↑ Hofmann A. (1980). "The Mexican relatives of LSD". LSD: My Problem Child. New York City: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–71. ISBN 978-0-07-029325-0. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Guzmán G. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview". Economic Botany 62 (3): 404–412. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8. 
  9. ↑ Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Natural History 3 (11): 41–44. PMID 30490162. PMC 5659401. https://books.google.com/books?id=EgEHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41. 
  10. ↑ Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (May 13): 100–120. https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA100. 
  11. ↑ Heim R. (1957). "Notes préliminaires sur les agarics hallucinogènes du Mexique" (in fr). Revue de Mycologie 22 (1): 58–79. 
  12. ↑ "Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin" (in de). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 14 (11): 397–399. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02160424. PMID 13609599. 
  13. ↑ "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" (in de). Experientia 14 (3): 107–109. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. 
  14. ↑ "Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment: A 34-Year Follow-Up Study". Bulletin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies 9 (4): 10–18. 1999. https://maps.org/news-letters/v09n4/09410con.bk.html. Retrieved March 26, 2021. 
  15. ↑ Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-06-165593-7. https://archive.org/details/harvardpsychedel00latt/page/37. 
  16. ↑ Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "Thirty years of Oaxacan ethnography". in Monaghan, John. Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=RZxCCImjN-gC&pg=PA165. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Guzmán, G.; Allen, J.W.; Gartz, J. (2000). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto: Sezione Archeologia, Storia, Scienze Naturali 14: 189–280. http://www.museocivico.rovereto.tn.it/UploadDocs/104_art09-Guzman%20&%20C.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2022. 
  18. ↑ Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids" (in en). International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMID 36430546. 
  19. ↑ "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 207. 1998. http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. Retrieved September 17, 2017. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Guzmán, G. (2005). "Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention to hallucinogenic properties". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7 (1–2): 305–331. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushr.v7.i12.280. 
  21. ↑ Wurst, M.; Kysilka, R.; Flieger, M. (2002). "Psychoactive tryptamines from Basidiomycetes". Folia Microbiologica 47 (1): 3–27 [5]. doi:10.1007/BF02818560. PMID 11980266. 
  22. ↑ Guzmán, G. (1983). The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution, and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte Zur Nova Hedwigia. 74. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: J. Cramer. pp. 361–2. ISBN 978-3-7682-5474-8. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 "Chemical Composition Variability in Magic Mushrooms". March 4, 2019. https://psychedelicreview.com/chemical-composition-variability-in-magic-mushrooms/. 
  24. ↑ "Hallucinogenic mushrooms drug profile". European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/hallucinogenic-mushrooms_en. 
  25. ↑ Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-393-32493-8. https://archive.org/details/buzzedstraightfa0000kuhn/page/83. 
  26. ↑ Canada, Health (January 12, 2012). "Magic mushrooms – Canada.ca". https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-abuse/controlled-illegal-drugs/magic-mushrooms.html. 
  27. ↑ "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in 'Magic' Mushrooms". Chemistry 26 (3): 729–734. January 2020. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMID 31729089. 
  28. ↑ "Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel brunnein-type antioxidant β-carboline alkaloid from Cyclocybe cylindracea". Fitoterapia 137: 104180. September 2019. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104180. PMID 31150766. 
  29. ↑ "Determination of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis 19 (4): 335–41. 2008. doi:10.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852. 
  30. ↑ Passie, T.; Seifert, J.; Schneider, und; Emrich, H.M. (2002). "The pharmacology of psilocybin". Addiction Biology 7 (4): 357–364. doi:10.1080/1355621021000005937. PMID 14578010. 
  31. ↑ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Center. http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs6/6038/index.htm. 
  32. ↑ van Amsterdam, J.; Opperhuizen, A.; van den Brink, W. (2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59 (3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914. 
  33. ↑ Wittmann, M.; Carter, O.; Hasler, F.; Cahn, B.R.; Grimberg, und; Spring, P.; Hell, D.; Flohr, H. et al. (2007). "Effects of psilocybin on time perception and temporal control of behavior in humans". Journal of Psychopharmacology 21 (1): 50–64. doi:10.1177/0269881106065859. PMID 16714323. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Schultes, Richard Evans (1976). Hallucinogenic Plants. Illustrated by Elmer W. Smith. New York: Golden Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-307-24362-1. https://archive.org/details/hallucinogenicpl00schu_0/page/68. 
  35. ↑ Ballesteros, S.; Ramón, M.F.; Iturralde, M.J.; Martínez-Arrieta, R. (2006). "Natural Sources of Drugs of Abuse: Magic Mushrooms". in Cole, S.M.. New Research on Street Drugs. Nova Science Publishers. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-59454-961-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ovGcMmz5emUC&pg=PA175. 
  36. ↑ Stamets (1996)
  37. ↑ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Center, US Department of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs6/6038/.  Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010). "Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography.". Forensic Science International 1 (3): 160–164. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013. PMID 20047807. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004927. 
  39. ↑ Erowid (2006). "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage" (shtml). Erowid. https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_dose.shtml. 
  40. ↑ "Terence McKenna's Last Trip". Wired Magazine. Condé Nast Publications. May 1, 2000. https://www.wired.com/2000/05/mckenna/. 
  41. ↑ Jesso, James W. (June 13, 2013). Decomposing The Shadow: Lessons From The Psilocybin Mushroom. SoulsLantern Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-9919435-0-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q53PBgAAQBAJ&q=heroic%20dose%20mushroom&pg=PA90. 
  42. ↑ "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5 (3): 287–291. 1982. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9. PMID 7201054. 
  43. ↑ Kosentka, Pawel (2013). "Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi.". PLOS ONE 8 (5): e64646. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. PMID 23717644. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...864646K. 
  44. ↑ Maryadele, O’Neil (2006). The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck Research Laboratories. ISBN 978-0911910001. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Chilton, Scott; Bigwood, Jeremy (1979). "Chilton, W. Scott, Jeremy Bigwood, and Robert E. Jensen. "Psilocin, bufotenine, and serotonin: historical and biosynthetic observations.". Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 11.1 (2): 61–69. doi:10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093. PMID 392119. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093. 
  46. ↑ Zhuk, Olga (2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMID 25826052. 
  47. ↑ Lima, Afonso DL (2012). "Poisonous mushrooms; a review of the most common intoxications.". Nutricion Hospitalaria 27 (2): 402–408. doi:10.3305/nh.2012.27.2.5328. PMID 22732961. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3092/309226786009.pdf. 
  48. ↑ Bui, Eric; King, Franklin; Melaragno, Andrew (December 1, 2019). "Pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders in the 21st century: A call for novel approaches (Review)". General Psychiatry 32 (6): e100136. doi:10.1136/gpsych-2019-100136. PMID 31922087. 
  49. ↑ Doblin, Richard E.; Christiansen, Merete; Jerome, Lisa; Burge, Brad (2019-03-15). "The Past and Future of Psychedelic Science: An Introduction to This Issue" (in en). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 51 (2): 93–97. doi:10.1080/02791072.2019.1606472. ISSN 0279-1072. PMID 31132970. 
  50. ↑ "FDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". November 22, 2019. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191122005452/en/FDA-grants-Breakthrough-Therapy-Designation-to-Usona-Institutes-psilocybin-program-for-major-depressive-disorder. 
  51. ↑ "Oregon Measure 109, Psilocybin Mushroom Services Program Initiative (2020)". Nov 3, 2020. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020). 
  52. ↑ Brown, Jennifer (10 November 2022). "Colorado becomes second state to legalize "magic mushrooms"" (in en-US). http://coloradosun.com/2022/11/09/proposition-122-colorado-results-psilocybin-mushrooms-2/. 
  53. ↑ A gray market emerges in Colorado after voters approved psychedelic substances
  54. ↑ "Colorado Proposition 122, Decriminalization and Regulated Access Program for Certain Psychedelic Plants and Fungi Initiative (2022)". Nov 8, 2022. https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_122,_Decriminalization_and_Regulated_Access_Program_for_Certain_Psychedelic_Plants_and_Fungi_Initiative_(2022). 
  55. ↑ "Is It Legal to Buy Mushroom Spores Online?". Dec 5, 2022. https://pnwspore.com/legal-buy-mushroom-spores-online/. 
  56. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions". Jul 2, 2022. https://sporestock.com/faq. 
  57. ↑ "Psilocybin Drug Fact Sheet". April 21, 2020. https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/Psilocybin-2020_0.pdf. 
  58. ↑ "COURT OF APPEALS OF WISCONSIN PUBLISHED OPINION". June 21, 2007. https://www.wicourts.gov/ca/opinions/06/pdf/06-2557.pdf. 

General and cited references

  • Allen, J.W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN 978-1-58214-026-1. 
  • Estrada, A. (1981). Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants. Ross Erikson. ISBN 978-0-915520-32-9. https://archive.org/details/marasabinaherl00estr. 
  • Haze, Virginia & Dr. K. Mandrake, PhD. The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. ISBN 978-1-937866-28-0. www.greencandypress.com.
  • Högberg, O. (2003) (in sv). Flugsvampen och människan. Carlssons. ISBN 978-91-7203-555-3. 
  • Kuhn, C.; Swartzwelder, S; Wilson, W. (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32493-8. https://archive.org/details/buzzedstraightfa0000kuhn. 
  • Letcher, A. (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22770-9. 
  • McKenna, T. (1993). Food of the Gods. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-553-37130-7. 
  • Nicholas, L.G.; Ogame, K. (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 978-0-932551-71-9. 
  • Stamets, P. (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-175-7. 
  • Stamets, P.; Chilton, J.S. (1983). The Mushroom Cultivator. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 978-0-9610798-0-2. 
  • Stamets, P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-9610798-0-2. 
  • Wasson, G.R. (1980). The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-068443-0. 

Template loop detected: Template:Hallucinogenic mushrooms



Wikidata ☰ Q850667 entry



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Biology:Psilocybe&oldid=1050201"