Biology:Psilocybe cubensis

From HandWiki
Short description: Species of fungus

Psilocybe cubensis
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Species:
P. cubensis
Binomial name
Psilocybe cubensis
(Earle) Singer
Synonyms

Stropharia cubensis Earle
Stropharia cyanescens Murrill
Naematoloma caerulescens Pat.
Hypholoma caerulescens (Pat.) Sacc. & Trotter

Psilocybe cubensis
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
float
Mycological characteristics
gills on hymenium
cap is convex or flat
hymenium is adnate or adnexed
stipe has a ring
spore print is purple
ecology is saprotrophic
edibility: psychoactive

Psilocybe cubensis, commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis. It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

Taxonomy

The species was first described in 1906 as Stropharia cubensis by American mycologist Franklin Sumner Earle in Cuba.[1] In 1907, it was identified as Naematoloma caerulescens in Tonkin (now Vietnam) by French pharmacist and mycologist Narcisse Théophile Patouillard,[2] while in 1941, it was called Stropharia cyanescens by William Alphonso Murrill near Gainesville in Florida.[3] German-born mycologist Rolf Singer moved the species into the genus Psilocybe in 1949, giving it the binomial name Psilocybe cubensis.[4] The synonyms were later also assigned to the species Psilocybe cubensis.[5][6]

The name Psilocybe is derived from the Ancient Greek roots psilos (ψιλος) and kubê (κυβη),[7] and translates as "bare head". Cubensis means "coming from Cuba", and refers to the type locality published by Earle.

Singer divided P. cubensis into three varieties: the nominate, which usually had a brownish cap, Murrill's cyanescens from Florida, which generally had a pale cap, and var caerulascens from Indochina with a more yellowish cap.[8]

Psilocybe cubensis is commonly known as gold top, golden top or gold cap in Australia, sacred mushroom[9] or blue mushroom in Brazil, and San Ysidro or Palenque mushroom in the United States and Mexico, while the term "magic mushroom" has been applied to hallucinogenic mushrooms in general.[10] It is commonly known as "Golden teacher" in South Africa.[11] A common name in Thai is "Hed keequai", which translates as "mushroom which appears after water buffalo defecates".[12]

Between 2013 and 2022, several samples of an unknown species of Psilocybe mushroom were collected. These samples bore similar superficial characteristics to P. cubensis, as well as similar habit and habitat. Microscopic and genetic testing of these samples led to the conclusion that they were closely related but different species, estimated to have shared a common ancestor some time in the last 3 million years. The new species bears the provisional name Psilocybe ochraceocentrata.[13]

Description

Psilocybe cubensis

The cap is 1.6–8 cm (3⁄4–3 1⁄4 in), conic to convex with a central papilla when young, becoming broadly convex to plane with age, retaining a slight umbo sometimes surrounded by a ring-shaped depression. The cap surface is smooth and sticky, sometimes with white universal veil remnants attached. The cap is brown becoming paler to almost white at the margin and fades to more golden-brown or yellowish with age. When bruised, all parts of the mushroom stain blue. The narrow grey gills are adnate to adnexed, sometimes seceding attachment, and darken to purplish-black and somewhat mottled with age. The gill edges remain whitish. The hollow white stipe is 4–15 cm (2–6 in) high by 0.4–1.4 cm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) thick, becoming yellowish in age.[8] The well-developed veil leaves a persistent white membranous ring whose surface usually becomes the same color as the gills because of falling spores.[14] The fruiting bodies are 90% water.[15] The mushroom has no odor and has been described as tasting farinaceous, with an alkaline or metallic aftertaste. The spores are 11.5–17.3 x 8–11.5 μm, sub-ellipsoid, basidia 4-spored but sometimes 2- or 3-, pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia present.[8]

Similar species

The related species Psilocybe subcubensis—found in tropical regions—is indistinguishable but has smaller spores.[12] Panaeolus semiovatus can appear similar but does not stain.[16]

Psilocybe cubensis spores, 1000x

Distribution and habitat

Psilocybe cubensis is a pan-tropical species,[4] occurring in the Gulf Coast states and southeastern United States, Mexico, in the Central American countries of Belize, Costa Rica, Panamá, El Salvador and Guatemala, the Caribbean countries Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Guadalupe, Martinique, and Trinidad, in the South American countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Uruguay and Peru, Southeast Asia,[17] including Thailand,[12][18] Vietnam, Cambodia and Malaysia, India, Australia, Fiji, and possibly Nepal and Hawaii.[17]

Psilocybe cubensis is found on cow (and occasionally horse) dung, sugar cane mulch or rich pasture soil, with mushrooms appearing from February to December in the northern hemisphere, and November to April in the southern hemisphere.[8] In Asia, the species grows on water buffalo dung.[12] Along with other fungi that grow on cow dung, P. cubensis is thought to have colonized Australia with the introduction of cattle there, 1800 of which were on the Australian mainland by 1803—having been transported there from the Cape of Good Hope, Kolkata and the American west coast. In Australia, the species grows between northern Queensland to southern New South Wales.[10]

In March 2018, several Psilocybe cubensis specimens were collected in Zimbabwe in the Wedza District of Mashonaland East province, approx. 120 km  southeast of Harare. This was the first reported occurrence of a psilocybin mushroom in Zimbabwe. The mushrooms were collected on Imire Rhino & Wildlife Conservation—a nature reserve that is home to both wildlife and cattle, as well as cattle egrets.[19]

Relationship with cattle

Psilocybe cubensis, Zimbabwe

Because Psilocybe cubensis is intimately associated with cattle ranching,[20] the fungus has found unique dispersal niches not available to most other members of the family Hymenogastraceae. Of particular interest is the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), a colonizer of Old World origin (via South America), whose range of distribution overlaps much of that of Psilocybe cubensis. Cattle egrets typically walk alongside cattle, preying on insects; they track through spore-laden vegetation and cow dung and transfer the spores to suitable habitats, often thousands of miles away during migration activities. This type of spore dispersal is known as zoochory, and it enables a parent species to propagate over a much greater range than it could achieve alone. The relationship between cattle, cattle egrets, and Psilocybe cubensis is an example of symbiosis—a situation in which dissimilar organisms live together in close association.[21]

Cultivation

Indoor cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis

Psilocybe cubensis grows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for the growth of the fungus. The cow usually consumes grains or grass covered with the spores of P. cubensis and the fungus will begin to germinate within the dung.

Mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis are relatively easy to cultivate indoors. First, spores are inoculated within sterilized jars or bags, colloquially known as grainspawn, containing a form of carbohydrate nutrient such as rye grains.[22] After approximately one month, the spores fully colonize the grain spawn forming dense mycelium, which is then planted within a bulk substrate such as a coconut husk fiber and vermiculite mixture.[23] Given proper humidity, temperature, and fresh air exchange, the substrate will produce fruiting Psilocybe cubensis bodies within a month of planting. To preserve potency after harvesting, growers often dehydrate the fruit and store them in air-tight containers in cool environments.

A study conducted in 2009 showed that mushrooms grown in the dark had higher levels of psilocybin and psilocin compared to the mushrooms grown in bright, indirect light, which had minimum levels.[24]

Studies were conducted where an environmentally controlled wind tunnel and a computer program were used to determine the influence of humidity on the individual basidiocarps of P. cubensis which aided in mapping their growth and development. The transpiration and growth of the mushroom were heavily influenced by the humidity of the air, and the transpiration was accelerated at higher humidities while light did not affect the growth. Faster growth was observed at higher humidities. It was also discovered that misting enhanced both the growth and transpiration rates in the growing process of P. cubensis.[25]

Mushrooms grown with PF-Tek

Small-scale cultivation of P. cubensis is often accomplished with "cakes" that colonize within jars, but fruit inside specially designed tubs called "shotgun fruiting chambers". The most common cake method for beginners is PF-Tek ("Psilocybe Fanaticus technique"), named after Psylocybe Fanaticus, the clandestine cultivator credited for its creation. Cakes are popular for the new cultivator because of their simplicity and low cost of startup materials. As cakes are composed of brown rice flour, vermiculite, and gypsum, they can be steam-sterilized in a large pot. Unlike cereal grains used in bulk growing, brown rice flour contains no bacterial endospores, a contamination vector requiring a pressure cooker to sterilize.

The "Uncle Ben's Tek", also known as Spiderman Tek and Instant Rice Tek, is a growing method using microwavable rice sachets.[26] This technique involves utilizing pre-sterilized rice bags for mycelium to colonize upon. Though Uncle Ben's Tek is largely popular among beginners due to its low cost, it faces criticism from those more experienced due to its high rate of contamination compared to other techniques.

Other Teks exist, such as Lemon-Tek and Bucket-Tek, though all Tek's do not refer to methods for growth. Rather, they refer to knowledge regarding the cultivation, harvest, processing, and consumption for psychedelic fungi. TEK stands for Traditional Ecological Knowledge, though others claim it stands for Time Experience Knowledge or is simply a shortening of the term 'technique'.[27]

Cultivation methods resulting in larger yields are categorized as "bulk growing". Bulk growing allows cultivators to operate on a larger scale, but require a greater investment of time, money, and knowledge. While small-scale grows utilize spore syringes to inject spore solution into cakes, bulk methods instead use grain spawn as primary nutrition for the subsequent growth. Additionally, cultivators must develop solid sterile technique in working with agar. Instead of inoculating grain with spores, growers instead germinate spores on agar plates, then transfer the resultant healthy mycelium to the grain jars. Once the grain is colonized with clean mycelial growth, users inoculate their bulk substrates with the grain in a process known as "spawning." Bulk substrates are frequently a mix of coir, vermiculite and gypsum due to not requiring pasteurization or sterilization. However, some utilize blends of manure-based substrates or straw; substrates which always require pasteurization with open-air spawning. After spawning, the healthy mycelium will colonize the bulk substrate, and given proper conditions, eventually fruit mushrooms.[28]

Terence and Dennis McKenna made P. cubensis particularly famous when they published Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide in the 1970s upon their return from the Amazon rainforest, having deduced new methods (based on pre-existing techniques originally described by J.P. San Antonio)[29] for growing psilocybin mushrooms and assuring their audience that P. cubensis were amongst the easiest psilocybin-containing mushrooms to cultivate.[30]

The potency of cultivated specimens can vary widely per each flush (harvest). In a classic paper published by Jeremy Bigwood and M.W. Beug, it was shown that with each flush, psilocybin levels varied somewhat unpredictably but were much the same on the first flush as they were on the last flush; however, psilocin was typically absent in the first two flushes but peaked by the fourth flush, making it the most potent. Two strains were also analyzed to determine potency in caps and stems: In one strain the caps contained generally twice as much psilocybin as the stems, but the small amount of psilocin present was entirely in the stems. In the other strain, a trace of psilocin was present in the cap but not in the stem; the cap and stem contained equal amounts of psilocybin. The study concluded that the levels of psilocybin and psilocin vary by over a factor of four in cultures of P. cubensis grown under controlled conditions.[31]

Psychedelic and entheogenic use

Psilocybe cubensis

Singer noted in 1949 that Psilocybe cubensis had psychoactive properties.[4]

In Australia, the use of psychoactive mushrooms grew rapidly between 1969 and 1975.[10]

In a 1992 paper, locals and tourists in Thailand were reported to consume P. cubensis and related species in mushroom omelets—particularly in Ko Samui and Ko Pha-ngan. At times, omelets were adulterated with LSD, resulting in prolonged intoxication. A thriving subculture had developed in the region. Other localities, such as Hat Yai, Ko Samet, and Chiang Mai, also had some reported usage.[12]

In 1996, jars of honey containing Psilocybe cubensis were confiscated at the Dutch-German border. Upon examination, it was revealed that jars of honey containing psychedelic mushrooms were being sold at Dutch coffee shops.[32]

P. cubensis is one of the most widely known of the psilocybin-containing mushrooms used for triggering psychedelic experiences after ingestion. Its major alkaloids are:

The potential psychoactivity of other compounds other than psilocybin and psilocin has been speculated but not confirmed.[33]

The concentrations of psilocin and psilocybin, as determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, are in the range of 0.14–0.42% (wet weight) and 0.37–1.30% (dry weight) in the whole mushroom 0.17–0.78% (wet weight) and 0.44–1.35% (dry weight) in the cap, and 0.09%–0.30% (wet weight) and 0.05–1.27% (dry weight) in the stem, respectively.[34] For quickly and practically measuring the psychoactive contents of most healthy Psilocybe cubensis varieties, it can generally be assumed that there is approximately 15 mg (± 5 mg) of psilocybin per gram of dried mushroom.[35] Furthermore, due to factors such as age and storage method, the psilocybin and psilocin content of a given sample of mushrooms will vary.

Individual body composition, brain chemistry and psychological predisposition play a significant role in determining appropriate doses. For a modest psychedelic effect, a minimum of one gram of dried Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms is ingested orally, 0.25–1 gram is usually sufficient to produce a mild effect, 1–2.5 grams usually provides a moderate effect and 2.5 grams and higher usually produces strong effects.[36] For most people, 3.5 dried grams (1/8 oz) would be considered a high dose and may produce an intense experience; this is, however, typically considered a standard dose among recreational users. Body composition (usually weight) should be taken into account when calculating dosage. For many individuals, doses above three grams may be overwhelming. For a few rare people, doses as small as 0.25 gram can produce full-blown effects normally associated with very high doses. For most people, however, that dose level would have virtually no effects.

There are many different ways to ingest Psilocybe cubensis. Users may prefer to take them raw, freshly harvested, or dried and preserved. It is also possible to prepare culinary dishes such as pasta or tea with the mushrooms. However, the psychoactive compounds begin to break down rapidly at temperatures exceeding 100 °C (212 °F).[37] Another method of ingestion known as "Lemon Tekking" involves combining pulverized Psilocybe cubensis with a concentrated citrus juice with a pH of ~2. Many users believe that a considerable amount of the psilocybin will have been dephosphorylated into psilocin, the psychoactive metabolite, by citric acid. However, this claim is not substantiated by the literature on the metabolism of psilocybin, as dephosphorylation is known to be mediated by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase in humans.[38] It is therefore more likely that citric acid mostly helps in breakdown of mushroom cells, aiding in digestion and psilocybin release. The "Lemon Tek" method of consumption results in a more rapid onset and can offer easier digestion or reduced "come-up pressure" associated with raw consumption.[39]


The effects of high doses can be overwhelming depending on the particular phenotype of cubensis, grow method, and the individual. It is recommended not to eat wild mushrooms without properly identifying them as they may be poisonous.[40] In particular, similar species include mushrooms of the genus Galerina and Pholiotina rugosa—all potentially deadly—and Chlorophyllum molybdites. All of these grow in pastures, a similar habitat to that preferred by P. cubensis.[10]

Spore print of Psilocybe cubensis

In 2019, a 15-year-old boy suffered from transient kidney failure after eating P. cubensis from a cultivation kit in Canada. No one else in the group suffered any ill effects.[41]

Legality

Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[42] However, mushrooms containing psilocybin and psilocin are not illegal in some parts of the world. For example, in Brazil they are legal, but extractions from the mushroom containing psilocybin and psilocin remain illegal. In the United States, growing or possessing Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms is illegal in all states, but it is legal to possess and buy the spores for microscopy purposes. However, Denver, Colorado, decriminalized them for those 21 and up on May 8, 2019. Oakland, California, followed suit, decriminalizing psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as the peyote cactus on June 4, 2019.[43] Santa Cruz, California, decriminalized naturally occurring psychedelics, including psilocybin mushrooms, on January 29, 2020.[44] On November 3, 2020, the state of Oregon decriminalized possession of psilocybin mushrooms for recreational use and granted licensed practitioners permission to administer psilocybin mushrooms to individuals age 21 years and older.[45][46]

In 1978, the Florida Supreme Court ruled in Fiske vs Florida that possession of psilocybin mushrooms is not illegal, in that the mushrooms cannot be considered a "container" for psilocybin based on how the law is written, i.e., it does not specifically state that psilocybin mushrooms themselves are illegal, but that the hallucinogenic constituents in them are. According to this decision, the applicable statute as framed imparts no information as to which plants may contain psilocybin in its natural state and does not advise a person of ordinary intelligence that this substance is contained in a particular variety of mushroom. The statute, therefore, cannot constitutionally be applied to the appellant.[47][48]

The production, sale and possession of magic mushrooms is illegal in Canada.[49]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Earle, Franklin Summer (1906). "Algunos hongos cubanos" (in es). Información Anual Estación Central Agronomica Cuba 1: 225–242 [240–241]. https://books.google.com/books?id=upZBAQAAIAAJ. 
  2. ↑ Patouillard, Narcisse Théophile (1907). "Champignons nouveaux du Tonkin" (in fr). Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France 23 (1): 69–79. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9786980q/f123. 
  3. ↑ Murrill, William Alphonso (1941). "Some Florida Novelties". Mycologia 33 (3): 279–287. doi:10.2307/3754763. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0033/003/0279.htm.  closed access
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Guzmán, Gastón (2009). "The Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Diversity, Traditions, Use and Abuse with Special Reference to the Genus Psilocybe". Fungi from Different Environments. Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publishers. pp. 269–290. ISBN 978-1-57808-578-1. https://fmedicine.ajums.ac.ir/_fmedicine/Documents/Fungi%20from%20different%20environments_20130420_151816.pdf#page=269. Retrieved 2021-05-13. 
  5. ↑ "Naematoloma caerulescens Pat. 1907". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=521843. 
  6. ↑ "Stropharia cyanescens Murrill 1941". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=290107. 
  7. ↑ Cornelis, Schrevel (1826). Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections. p. 358. https://books.google.com/books?id=2eUIAAAAQAAJ&q=%CE%BA%CF%8D%CE%B2%CE%B7&pg=PA358. Retrieved 2011-10-04. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Singer, Rolf; Smith, Alexander H. (1958). "Mycological Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican Hallucinogenic Mushroom. Part II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes". Mycologia 50 (2): 262–303. doi:10.2307/3756197. 
  9. ↑ "Sacred Mushrooms". 1 March 2022. https://www.naturezadivina.com.br/cogumelos-sagrados. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Allen, John W.; Merlin, Mark D.; Jansen, Karl L.R. (1991). "An Ethnomycological Review of Psychoactive Agarics in Australia and New Zealand". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 23 (1): 39–69. doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10472573. PMID 1941366. 
  11. ↑ Nkadimeng, Sanah M.; Steinmann, Christiaan M. L.; Eloff, Jacobus N. (18 December 2020). "Effects and safety of Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens magic mushroom extracts on endothelin-1-induced hypertrophy and cell injury in cardiomyocytes". Scientific Reports 10 (1): 22314. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79328-5. PMID 33339902. Bibcode: 2020NatSR..1022314N. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Allen, John W.; Merlin, Mark D. (1992). "Psychoactive mushroom use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 35 (3): 205–228. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90020-R. PMID 1548895. 
  13. ↑ Bradshaw, Alexander J. (December 2024). "Discovery of the closest free-living relative of the domesticated "magic mushroom" Psilocybe cubensis in Africa". ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386541978. 
  14. ↑ Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Ten Speed Press. pp. g. 108. ISBN 0-89815-839-7. 
  15. ↑ Borovicˇka, J; Konvalinková, T (2019). "Disentangling the factors of contrasting silver and copper accumulation in sporocarps of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita strobiliformis from two sites". Sci Total Environ 694. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133679. PMID 31400682. Bibcode: 2019ScTEn.69433679B. 
  16. ↑ Audubon (2023). Mushrooms of North America. Knopf. pp. 658. ISBN 978-0-593-31998-7. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Guzmán, Gaston; Allen, John W.; Gartz, Jochen (1998). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 207. http://www.fungifun.org/docs/mushrooms/Psilocybe/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. 
  18. ↑ Brand, Danielle Simone (2023-07-21). "Pink Buffalo Mushrooms Are "Smooth and Kind," Say Enthusiasts" (in en-US). https://doubleblindmag.com/thai-pink-buffalo-mushrooms/. 
  19. ↑ "Mushroom Observer". http://mushroomobserver.org/observer/show_observation/311217. 
  20. ↑ O.T. Oss, O.N. Oeric. Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide, page 20. Quick American Press (1991).
  21. ↑ Smith, D. "The cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis): colonizer of Old World origin and a vector of Psilocybe cubensis spores." Stain Blue Press, Spring, Texas (1996). http://www.stainblue.com/cubensis.html
  22. ↑ "Cultivating Psilocybe cubensis: Suitable Substrates" (in en-US). 2020-10-14. https://psychedelicreview.com/cultivating-psilocybe-cubensis-suitable-substrates/. 
  23. ↑ Nicholas, LG; Kerry, Ogame (2006). Psilocybin mushroom handbook: easy indoor & outdoor cultivation. Quick Trading. ISBN 978-0932-55171-9. 
  24. ↑ "Cultivating P. cubensis: Light and Tryptamine Are Key for Controlling Psilocybin and Psilocin Levels" (in en-US). 2020-08-25. https://psychedelicreview.com/cultivating-p-cubensis-light-and-tryptophan-are-key-for-controlling-psilocybin-levels/. 
  25. ↑ Badham, Edmond R. (1985). "The Influence of Humidity upon Transpiration and Growth in Psilocybe cubensis". Mycologia 77 (6): 932–939. doi:10.2307/3793305. ISSN 0027-5514. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3793305. 
  26. ↑ "Uncle Bens Rice Tek" (in en). https://www.curiousapemushrooms.com.au/unclebenstek. 
  27. ↑ "Mushroom Teks (Mushroom Growing Techniques)" (in en). https://zombiemyco.com/blogs/mushroom-teks. 
  28. ↑ Oss, O. T. (1991). Psilocybin : magic mushroom grower's guide: a handbook for psilocybin enthusiasts. O. N. Oeric. [San Francisco, Calif.?]: Quick American Pub. ISBN 0-932551-06-8. OCLC 27721523. 
  29. ↑ Antonio, James P. San (January 1971). "A Laboratory Method to Obtain Fruit from Cased Grain Spawn of the Cultivated Mushroom, Agaricus Bisporus". Mycologia 63 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1080/00275514.1971.12019077. PMID 5102274. 
  30. ↑ "Terence McKenna's books in print". http://www.levity.com/eschaton/tmUSed.html. 
  31. ↑ Bigwood, Jeremy; Beug, Michael W. (1 May 1982). "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) singer". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5 (3): 287–291. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9. PMID 7201054. 
  32. ↑ Bogusz, M. J.; Maier, R. D.; Schäfer, A. T.; Erkens, M. (1998). "Honey with Psilocybe mushrooms: a revival of a very old preparation on the drug market?". International Journal of Legal Medicine 111 (3): 147–150. doi:10.1007/s004140050135. ISSN 0937-9827. PMID 9587797. 
  33. ↑ Sherwood, Alexander (2020-02-28). "Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin". Journal of Natural Products 83 (2): 461–467. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061. PMID 32077284. Bibcode: 2020JNAtP..83..461S. 
  34. ↑ Tsujikawa, Kenji; Kanamori, Tatsuyuki; Iwata, Yuko; Ohmae, Yoshihito; Sugita, Ritsuko; Inoue, Hiroyuki; Kishi, Tohru (December 2003). "Morphological and chemical analysis of magic mushrooms in Japan". Forensic Science International 138 (1–3): 85–90. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.08.009. PMID 14642723. 
  35. ↑ Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010). "Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography.". Forensic Science International 1 (3): 160–164. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013. PMID 20047807. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004927. 
  36. ↑ Erowid (2006). "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage" (shtml). Erowid. https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_dose.shtml. 
  37. ↑ Gotvaldová, Klára (2021). "Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis". Drug Testing and Analysis 13 (2): 439–446. doi:10.1002/dta.2950. PMID 33119971. https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/PREVENTIONWELLNESS/Documents/Stability%20of%20Psilocybin%20and%20Analogs.pdf. 
  38. ↑ Dinis-Oliveira, Ricardo Jorge (2 January 2017). "Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance". Drug Metabolism Reviews (Informa UK Limited) 49 (1): 84–91. doi:10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228. ISSN 0360-2532. PMID 28074670. 
  39. ↑ Horita, A; Weber, L.J. (1961). "The Enzymatic Dephosphorylation and Oxidation of Psilocybin and Psilocin by Mammalian Tissue Homogenates". Biochemical Pharmacology 7 (1): 47–54. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(61)90124-1. PMID 13715852. 
  40. ↑ Phillips, Roger (2010). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-55407-651-2. 
  41. ↑ Austin, Emily; Myron, Hilary S.; Summerbell, Richard K.; MacKenzie, Constance A. (2019). "Acute renal injury caused by confirmed Psilocybe cubensis mushroom ingestion". Medical Mycology Case Reports 23: 55–57. doi:10.1016/j.mmcr.2018.12.007. PMID 30627509. 
  42. ↑ List of psychotropic substances under international control (Report) (29 ed.). International Narcotics Control Board. 2018. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/attachments/10458/Green_list_ENG_V18-02416.pdf. 
  43. ↑ om/2019/06/04/oakland-second-city-in-usa-to-allow-magic-mushrooms/ "Oakland second city in USA to allow 'magic mushrooms'". East Bay Times (California, USA). 2019-06-04. https://www.eastbaytimes.c om/2019/06/04/oakland-second-city-in-usa-to-allow-magic-mushrooms/. 
  44. ↑ "Breaking: Santa Cruz City Council Votes to Decriminalize Entheogenic Plants and Fungi" (in en-US). 2020-01-29. https://doubleblindmag.com/breaking-news-santa-cruz-decriminalize-nature-entheogenic-plants-and-fungi/. 
  45. ↑ "Oregon measure 109". Ballotpedia. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020). 
  46. ↑ "Oregon measure 110". Ballotpedia. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_110,_Drug_Decriminalization_and_Addiction_Treatment_Initiative_(2020). 
  47. ↑ "Fiske v. State" (in en). https://law.justia.com/cases/florida/supreme-court/1978/50796-0.html. 
  48. ↑ "Florida Court Rules Psilocybin Mushrooms Are Not a 'Container' for Psilocybin Based on How the Law is Written". 2020. https://psychedelicreview.com/event/fiske-v-florida/. 
  49. ↑ "Psilocybin and psilocin (Magic mushrooms)". 12 January 2012. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-use/controlled-illegal-drugs/magic-mushrooms.html. 

Further reading

  • Guzman, G. The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia Heft 74. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Germany (1983) [now out of print].
  • Guzman, G. "Supplement to the genus Psilocybe." Bibliotheca Mycologica 159: 91-141 (1995).
  • Haze, Virginia & Mandrake, K. The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. ISBN 978-1937866-28-0.
  • Nicholas, L.G.; Ogame, Kerry (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 0-932551-71-8. 
  • Oss, O.T.; O.N. Oeric (1976). Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide. Quick American Publishing Company. ISBN 0-932551-06-8. 
  • Stamets, Paul; Chilton, J.S. (1983). Mushroom Cultivator, The. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. 
  • Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. 
Short description: Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids
Psilocybe semilanceata

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Psilocybe, Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs. They may be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but are more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout the Americas.

History

Early

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

Rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence.[1] Prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago.[2] The hallucinogenic[3] species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.[4] Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Guatemala.[5] A statuette dating from c. 200 CE depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in the west Mexican state of Colima in a shaft and chamber tomb. A Psilocybe species known to the Aztecs as teōnanācatl (literally "divine mushroom": the agglutinative form of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Nahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.[6] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.[7]

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[5] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[8]

Modern

Psilocybe allenii

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[9]

Psilocybe mexicana

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[10] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe,[11] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[12][13]

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism.[14] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[15]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[8] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[16] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Occurrence

Non-Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include Pluteus salicinus (left), Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center), and Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus subbalteatus (right)

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1).[17][18] Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms[19]

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[20] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[21] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[17] P. cubensis is the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[22] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[20]

Composition

Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[23] Its principal component is psilocybin,[24] which is converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effects.[25][26] Besides psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present, which can modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[23] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[23] Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in different genera, such as Psilocybe,[27]Cyclocybe,[28] and Hygrophorus.[29] Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derived β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.

Effects

Despite risks, mushrooms do much less damage in the UK than other recreational drugs.
Psilocybin
Psilocin

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects.[30] Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.[31] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[32] The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[33]

Sensory

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[34] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[34] Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[35]

Emotional

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent upon set and setting.[34] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[34] A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'[36] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose. In addition to the risks associated with the ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to use psilocybin mushrooms also risk poisoning if one of the wide varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.[37]

Dosage

A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms

The dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species but is typically around 0.5–2.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom.[38] Usual doses of the common species Psilocybe cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose.[39] Above 5 g is often considered a heavy dose, with 5.0 grams of dried mushroom often being referred to as a "heroic dose".[40][41]

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or variety.[42] The species Psilocybe azurescens contains the most psilocybin (up to 1.78%).

Toxicology

The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, the psilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins; psilocybin and psilocin.[43] The median lethal dose, also known as “LD50”, of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.[44]

From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult to overdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than 1.2 kg of dried Psilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.[38]

Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acute serotonin syndrome.[45] A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.[46]

Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.[45] However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.[47]

Clinical research

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders.[48][49] In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[50]

Legality

Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.

After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.[51] In 2022 Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,[52] though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.[53][54] Other jurisdictions in the United States where psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized include Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan; Oakland and Santa Cruz, California; Easthampton, Somerville, Northampton, and Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Washington, DC.[55]

Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.[56] This is because fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.[57] A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.[58]

See also

Citations

  1. ↑ Samorini, Giorgio (1992). "The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 BP)". Integration. Zeitschrift für geistbewegende Pflanzen und Kultur. 2/3: 69–75. https://www.academia.edu/79946409. 
  2. ↑ Akers, Brian P.; Ruiz, Juan Francisco; Piper, Alan; Ruck, Carl A. P. (2011). "A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?1". Economic Botany 65 (2): 121–128. doi:10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5. 
  3. ↑ Abuse, National Institute on Drug (April 22, 2019). "Hallucinogens DrugFacts". https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hallucinogens. 
  4. ↑ F.J. Carod-Artal (January 1, 2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurología (English Edition) 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010. PMID 21893367. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Stamets (1996), p. 11.
  6. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 7.
  7. ↑ Hofmann A. (1980). "The Mexican relatives of LSD". LSD: My Problem Child. New York City: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–71. ISBN 978-0-07-029325-0. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Guzmán G. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview". Economic Botany 62 (3): 404–412. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8. 
  9. ↑ Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Natural History 3 (11): 41–44. PMID 30490162. PMC 5659401. https://books.google.com/books?id=EgEHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41. 
  10. ↑ Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (May 13): 100–120. https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA100. 
  11. ↑ Heim R. (1957). "Notes préliminaires sur les agarics hallucinogènes du Mexique" (in fr). Revue de Mycologie 22 (1): 58–79. 
  12. ↑ "Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin" (in de). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 14 (11): 397–399. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02160424. PMID 13609599. 
  13. ↑ "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" (in de). Experientia 14 (3): 107–109. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. 
  14. ↑ "Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment: A 34-Year Follow-Up Study". Bulletin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies 9 (4): 10–18. 1999. https://maps.org/news-letters/v09n4/09410con.bk.html. Retrieved March 26, 2021. 
  15. ↑ Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-06-165593-7. https://archive.org/details/harvardpsychedel00latt/page/37. 
  16. ↑ Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "Thirty years of Oaxacan ethnography". in Monaghan, John. Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=RZxCCImjN-gC&pg=PA165. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Guzmán, G.; Allen, J.W.; Gartz, J. (2000). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto: Sezione Archeologia, Storia, Scienze Naturali 14: 189–280. http://www.museocivico.rovereto.tn.it/UploadDocs/104_art09-Guzman%20&%20C.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2022. 
  18. ↑ Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids" (in en). International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMID 36430546. 
  19. ↑ "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 207. 1998. http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. Retrieved September 17, 2017. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Guzmán, G. (2005). "Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention to hallucinogenic properties". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7 (1–2): 305–331. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushr.v7.i12.280. 
  21. ↑ Wurst, M.; Kysilka, R.; Flieger, M. (2002). "Psychoactive tryptamines from Basidiomycetes". Folia Microbiologica 47 (1): 3–27 [5]. doi:10.1007/BF02818560. PMID 11980266. 
  22. ↑ Guzmán, G. (1983). The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution, and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte Zur Nova Hedwigia. 74. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: J. Cramer. pp. 361–2. ISBN 978-3-7682-5474-8. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 "Chemical Composition Variability in Magic Mushrooms". March 4, 2019. https://psychedelicreview.com/chemical-composition-variability-in-magic-mushrooms/. 
  24. ↑ "Hallucinogenic mushrooms drug profile". European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/hallucinogenic-mushrooms_en. 
  25. ↑ Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-393-32493-8. https://archive.org/details/buzzedstraightfa0000kuhn/page/83. 
  26. ↑ Canada, Health (January 12, 2012). "Magic mushrooms – Canada.ca". https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-abuse/controlled-illegal-drugs/magic-mushrooms.html. 
  27. ↑ "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in 'Magic' Mushrooms". Chemistry 26 (3): 729–734. January 2020. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMID 31729089. 
  28. ↑ "Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel brunnein-type antioxidant β-carboline alkaloid from Cyclocybe cylindracea". Fitoterapia 137: 104180. September 2019. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104180. PMID 31150766. 
  29. ↑ "Determination of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis 19 (4): 335–41. 2008. doi:10.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852. 
  30. ↑ Passie, T.; Seifert, J.; Schneider, und; Emrich, H.M. (2002). "The pharmacology of psilocybin". Addiction Biology 7 (4): 357–364. doi:10.1080/1355621021000005937. PMID 14578010. 
  31. ↑ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Center. http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs6/6038/index.htm. 
  32. ↑ van Amsterdam, J.; Opperhuizen, A.; van den Brink, W. (2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59 (3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914. 
  33. ↑ Wittmann, M.; Carter, O.; Hasler, F.; Cahn, B.R.; Grimberg, und; Spring, P.; Hell, D.; Flohr, H. et al. (2007). "Effects of psilocybin on time perception and temporal control of behavior in humans". Journal of Psychopharmacology 21 (1): 50–64. doi:10.1177/0269881106065859. PMID 16714323. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Schultes, Richard Evans (1976). Hallucinogenic Plants. Illustrated by Elmer W. Smith. New York: Golden Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-307-24362-1. https://archive.org/details/hallucinogenicpl00schu_0/page/68. 
  35. ↑ Ballesteros, S.; Ramón, M.F.; Iturralde, M.J.; Martínez-Arrieta, R. (2006). "Natural Sources of Drugs of Abuse: Magic Mushrooms". in Cole, S.M.. New Research on Street Drugs. Nova Science Publishers. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-59454-961-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ovGcMmz5emUC&pg=PA175. 
  36. ↑ Stamets (1996)
  37. ↑ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Center, US Department of Justice. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs6/6038/.  Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010). "Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography.". Forensic Science International 1 (3): 160–164. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013. PMID 20047807. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004927. 
  39. ↑ Erowid (2006). "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage" (shtml). Erowid. https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_dose.shtml. 
  40. ↑ "Terence McKenna's Last Trip". Wired Magazine. Condé Nast Publications. May 1, 2000. https://www.wired.com/2000/05/mckenna/. 
  41. ↑ Jesso, James W. (June 13, 2013). Decomposing The Shadow: Lessons From The Psilocybin Mushroom. SoulsLantern Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-9919435-0-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q53PBgAAQBAJ&q=heroic%20dose%20mushroom&pg=PA90. 
  42. ↑ "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5 (3): 287–291. 1982. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9. PMID 7201054. 
  43. ↑ Kosentka, Pawel (2013). "Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi.". PLOS ONE 8 (5): e64646. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. PMID 23717644. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...864646K. 
  44. ↑ Maryadele, O’Neil (2006). The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck Research Laboratories. ISBN 978-0911910001. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Chilton, Scott; Bigwood, Jeremy (1979). "Chilton, W. Scott, Jeremy Bigwood, and Robert E. Jensen. "Psilocin, bufotenine, and serotonin: historical and biosynthetic observations.". Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 11.1 (2): 61–69. doi:10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093. PMID 392119. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02791072.1979.10472093. 
  46. ↑ Zhuk, Olga (2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMID 25826052. 
  47. ↑ Lima, Afonso DL (2012). "Poisonous mushrooms; a review of the most common intoxications.". Nutricion Hospitalaria 27 (2): 402–408. doi:10.3305/nh.2012.27.2.5328. PMID 22732961. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/3092/309226786009.pdf. 
  48. ↑ Bui, Eric; King, Franklin; Melaragno, Andrew (December 1, 2019). "Pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders in the 21st century: A call for novel approaches (Review)". General Psychiatry 32 (6): e100136. doi:10.1136/gpsych-2019-100136. PMID 31922087. 
  49. ↑ Doblin, Richard E.; Christiansen, Merete; Jerome, Lisa; Burge, Brad (2019-03-15). "The Past and Future of Psychedelic Science: An Introduction to This Issue" (in en). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 51 (2): 93–97. doi:10.1080/02791072.2019.1606472. ISSN 0279-1072. PMID 31132970. 
  50. ↑ "FDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". November 22, 2019. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191122005452/en/FDA-grants-Breakthrough-Therapy-Designation-to-Usona-Institutes-psilocybin-program-for-major-depressive-disorder. 
  51. ↑ "Oregon Measure 109, Psilocybin Mushroom Services Program Initiative (2020)". Nov 3, 2020. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020). 
  52. ↑ Brown, Jennifer (10 November 2022). "Colorado becomes second state to legalize "magic mushrooms"" (in en-US). http://coloradosun.com/2022/11/09/proposition-122-colorado-results-psilocybin-mushrooms-2/. 
  53. ↑ A gray market emerges in Colorado after voters approved psychedelic substances
  54. ↑ "Colorado Proposition 122, Decriminalization and Regulated Access Program for Certain Psychedelic Plants and Fungi Initiative (2022)". Nov 8, 2022. https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_122,_Decriminalization_and_Regulated_Access_Program_for_Certain_Psychedelic_Plants_and_Fungi_Initiative_(2022). 
  55. ↑ "Is It Legal to Buy Mushroom Spores Online?". Dec 5, 2022. https://pnwspore.com/legal-buy-mushroom-spores-online/. 
  56. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions". Jul 2, 2022. https://sporestock.com/faq. 
  57. ↑ "Psilocybin Drug Fact Sheet". April 21, 2020. https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/Psilocybin-2020_0.pdf. 
  58. ↑ "COURT OF APPEALS OF WISCONSIN PUBLISHED OPINION". June 21, 2007. https://www.wicourts.gov/ca/opinions/06/pdf/06-2557.pdf. 

General and cited references

Template loop detected: Template:Hallucinogenic mushrooms



Wikidata ☰ Q690450 entry



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Biology:Psilocybe_cubensis&oldid=4259198"