Biology:Hallucinogenic bolete mushroom

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Short description: Type of psychoactive fungus
Not to be confused with psilocybin-containing mushroom or Amanita muscaria.
Boletus speciosus, one of the species that has been implicated as a possible hallucinogenic bolete mushroom.[1][2]

Hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms, also known as psychoactive bolete mushrooms or as "xiao ren ren" mushrooms, are bolete mushrooms that produce hallucinogenic effects and are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom.[1][3][4][5][6][7] They have been reported in Papua New Guinea, China, and the Philippines.[1][4][5][8]

The exact species of the mushrooms, their active constituents, and their mechanism of action have all yet to be fully clarified.[3] However, among the most frequently implicated species is Lanmaoa asiatica.[1][9][10][11][12][13] Hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms are said to make people see the "xiao ren ren" or "little people" and hence to experience Lilliputian hallucinations.[6][12][1] Lilliputian hallucinations are a unique type of hallucination and are not necessarily consistent with the hallucinogenic effects of other psychoactive mushrooms.[12][14]

Other much more well-known hallucinogenic mushrooms include psilocybin-containing mushrooms (which contain the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist and serotonergic psychedelic psilocybin) and Amanita muscaria mushrooms (which contain the GABAA receptor agonist and dissociative hallucinogen muscimol).[4][15][16][17]

Instances

Western Highlands, Papua New Guinea

Certain bolete and russule mushrooms have been used in shamanic practices in Papua New Guinea by the Kuma people and other ethnic groups and have been reported to cause "madness".[4][1][18] However, findings are conflicting and this area is controversial.[4][1][19][18] Various mushroom species have been reported to have been consumed by the Kuma people, including notably Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus.[1] Psilocybe mushrooms are also present in these areas and known by the locals, but are considered inedible and are not consumed.[1]

It was first reported by a missionary in 1936 that some bolete mushrooms consumed by natives in Papua New Guinea caused "madness".[18][12] Subsequently, this phenomenon was described in more detail by anthropologist Marie Reay in the late 1950s, who reported that the mushrooms caused Lilliputian hallucinations.[12][18][1] Then, in the mid-1960s, mycologists Gordon Wasson and Roger Heim surveyed 400 mushrooms in the area, described six species claimed to cause "mushroom madness", and sent one purportedly hallucinogenic species, Boletus manicus, to German chemist Albert Hofmann for chemical analysis.[18][20][19][12] Boletus manicus was found by Hofmann known to contain trace amounts of three unidentified indolic compounds.[20][19][3] However, the quantities were too low to allow for identification, and hence the active constituents were not identified.[20][6][3] In any case, the detected indolic compounds would need to be extremely potent, on par with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), to account for the claimed hallucinogenic effects of Boletus manicus.[20][19][6] The hypothesis that these indolic compounds are indeed highly potent hallucinogens has been treated both seriously, for instance by Heim, and critiqued and discounted, for instance by ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott.[20][19] Heim, who notably discovered Boletus manicus, reported three self-experiments with consumption of tiny amounts of the mushroom that resulted in strange dreams on one occasion, but clearly perceptible and uncontroversial psychoactive effects were not experienced.[1][18]

Heim, Wasson, and Reay ultimately concluded in the 1960s that, due to their inability to identify active constituents and due to the lack of consistency in reported effects, the claims of "mushroom madness" were really just "social catharsis" and ritualistically and theatrically "acting out", rather than a pharmacological effect of the mushrooms.[1][18][12] On the other hand, Giorgio Samorini, a contemporary psychedelic researcher, has theorized that this conclusion may have been premature and that the mushrooms may indeed be psychoactive.[1] In a 2006 survey of the village by Roland Treu and Win Adamson, it was found that much of the local knowledge of the mushrooms had been lost and the last known incidence of the mushrooms being consumed and producing hallucinogenic effects was in the mid-1980s.[12][18] Only a few people with direct experience with the mushrooms remained alive.[18] One man asserted that the mushrooms did indeed cause him to experience Lilliputian hallucinations.[18]

Yunnan, China

Certain blue-staining edible boletes in the Yunnan province of China are said to be hallucinogenic mushrooms.[1][6][7][5] This was first reported in 1991, was observed by mycologist David Arora by 1997, and was more thoroughly reported by Arora in 2008.[12][6][7][21] However, the Chinese Daoist Ge Hong wrote in Baopuzi (The Master Who Embraces Simplicity) around 300 CE that eating a certain wild mushroom raw would result in attainment of transcendence immediately, suggesting that the mushrooms may have been known for thousands of years.[22] The Yunnan mushrooms are said to become non-hallucinogenic with proper cooking (for at least 15 to 25 minutes), which presumably destroys their active constituents, and are commonly consumed in well-cooked form as food in the province.[1][6] There have been cases of unintended hallucinogenic mushroom poisonings when the mushrooms are accidentally undercooked or are eaten in large quantities.[1][6] However, it has been suggested that some level of cooking might be required for the mushrooms to become hallucinogenic.[6] The mushrooms are said to make people see the "xiao ren ren", meaning "lots of little men or people", and these hallucinations are said to be reminiscent of Lilliputian hallucinations.[1][4][5][6] Aside from "xiao ren ren" hallucinations, the hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms are also reported to make people see walls moving and shifting, geometrical patterns, and strange shapes and object transformations (like shoelaces turning into butterflies that fly away), to make everything appear very beautiful, and to produce other effects such as gastrointestinal distress.[1][6][5]

The exact bolete species that produce hallucinogenic effects are not entirely clear, at least as of 2008, due to difficulty in identification, due to many of the different species closely resembling one another on account of convergent evolution, and related to the fact that the people in the region are known to eat hundreds of different mushroom species.[1][6][12] As a result, it is unclear whether it is one species or multiple that may be causing the hallucinations.[12] In any case, popular edible bolete species in the province include Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Lanmaoa asiatica, Sutorius magnificus, and Rubroboletus sinicus.[5][12] The active constituents of the mushrooms likewise have not yet been identified and are unknown.[6][3] The phenomenon of hallucinogenic bolete mushroom intoxication in China is well-known and frequently covered in local and national media in the country.[1][23][24][25][26]

The earliest report, published in 1991 by a Yunnan hospital, described 300 cases of Boletus speciosus poisonings, with effects starting 6 to 24 hours after consumption, lasting days to months, and including both open-eye and closed-eye Lilliputian hallucinations of people and animals.[12][21] Other effects in more serious cases included psychosis- or schizophrenia-like symptoms, auditory hallucinations, pareidolia, disturbed thinking, aberrant behavior, personality disintegration, and stupor.[21] Most cases resolved within a few days, some within 10 to 30 days, in a subset of cases after more than a month, and in a few cases within half a year.[21] There were no deaths or relapses.[21] In those with stupor, electroencephalogram (EEG) found LSD-like changes.[21] The antipsychotic chlorpromazine was reportedly effective in managing symptoms.[21] The same researchers administered extracts of the mushrooms to animals, including to dogs and to a rhesus monkey, and found that they produced abnormal behavior that started after 5 to 12 hours and lasted up to 2 days.[12][21] Stupor was likewise observed in the monkey.[21]

A news article in 2014 reported that a Yunnan woman was purposely and repeatedly consuming hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms so that she could have hallucinations of and thereby see her deceased daughter.[12][27] A case series of Boletus speciosus (porcini) mushrooms causing visual and auditory hallucinations in two women was published in the Chinese literature by a Beijing hospital in 2014.[1][2] The symptoms onset after 6 to 12 hours, resulted in the women going to the hospital after 12 hours, and lasted for up to 5 days.[1][2] Similarly, in 2016, a case report was published of hallucinogenic mushroom poisoning in a Hong Kong woman who had consumed a bolete that had been purchased in the Yunnan province.[1][28] Her symptoms included dizziness, malaise, and visual hallucinations.[1][28] They onset 10 hours after consumption and resolved after 48 hours.[1][28] The mushroom was identified as Tylopilus nigerrimus and is generally considered inedible.[1][28] This was the first report of hallucinogenic effects with this mushroom species in the English-language literature.[1][28] Larger series of mushroom poisonings, including hallucinations, have also been reported in 2022, 2023, and 2024.[1][9][10][11][13] In the 2024 series, of 81 patients, symptoms onset after 12 to 24 hours, notably longer than other hallucinogenic mushrooms, were often accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea (54%), vomiting (44%), fatigue (49%), dizziness (36%), diarrhea (15%), and abdominal pain (7.4%), resolved within 1 to 5 days in almost all cases (93%), and no deaths or abnormalities in vitals or blood tests were observed.[13] Lanmaoa asiatica is one of the more frequently implicated bolete mushrooms in producing hallucinogenic effects.[1][9][10][11][12][13] Other reportedly implicated species have included Butyriboletus roseoflavus and Neoboletus magnificus, and some of their constituents have been characterized.[1]

American ethnobiologist Colin Domnauer and mycologist Bryn Dentinger have been studying hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms in the 2020s.[12][29][30][31] Dentinger is said to be one of the world's leading experts on bolete mushrooms.[30] In 2023, it was reported that Domnauer had recently visited Yunnan to collect samples of hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms.[29][31] Also in 2023, Domnauer and Dentinger published a conference abstract in which they sampled and assessed 12 of the 13 currently accepted species of Lanmaoa mushrooms towards investigations of the psychoactive Yunnan mushrooms.[31] Chinese researchers are also studying the mushroom poisonings.[9][10][11][13][21]

United States Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen, unbeknownst to her at the time, ate cooked (and thus inactivated) hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms at a restaurant while visiting China in 2023, and this was widely covered in the media when it occurred.[29][24][32][33][34]

Cordillera, Philippines

In 2024, Domnauer published that he had traveled not only to southern China but also to the northern Philippines in his studies of hallucinogenic Lanmaoa asiatica mushrooms.[8][35] This was in Sagada in the Philippine Cordilleras, to investigate blue-staining boletes, known as "Sedesdem", that were said to be regularly eaten and would irregularly cause people to see the "Ansisit" or "little people" (i.e., also Lilliputian hallucinations).[8][35]

Other instances

Other Lanmaoa species closely related to Lanmaoa asiatica, such as Lanmaoa pallidorosea, Lanmaoa carminipes, and Lanmaoa flavorubra, exist in North America.[12] However, there are no reports of such species causing hallucinogenic effects in North America or Europe or anywhere outside of China and Papua New Guinea.[12] In any case, such mushrooms are also not commonly eaten in North America due to apparent stigma against consumption of blue-staining mushrooms in this part of the world, and so possible hallucinogenic effects of such mushrooms may have been missed.[12]

Miscellaneous

Boletus curtisii is known to contain β-carboline-1-propanoic acid and certain other β-carbolines.[3][36][37] Imleria badia and Xerocomellus chrysenteron, which are also bolete mushrooms, have been reported to produce variable amounts of β-phenethylamine, tyramine, and tryptamine.[12][38] Various chemical constituents, including pharmacologically active compounds, have been isolated from Lanmaoa asiatica.[39][40][41][42]

It has been hypothesized that hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms might have picked up genes producing hallucinogenic compounds from other hallucinogenic mushrooms like Psilocybe and Amanita mushrooms via horizontal gene transfer.[12][31] However, genetic analysis of Lanmaoa mushrooms published in 2023 found no evidence of this, suggesting that a novel class of hallucinogens may be present in the mushrooms.[31] Relatedly, hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms are not thought to contain psilocybin.[26]

Dennis McKenna has suggested that the effects of hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms might be consistent with a Datura-like anticholinergic delirium.[43]

The plasma metabolic profiles of people experiencing hallucinogenic Lanmaoa asiatica poisoning were studied in 2025.[44]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 Samorini G (2024). "A new interpretation of the "mushroom madness" of New Guinea". Antrocom J. Of Anthropology 20 (2): 5–25. ISSN 1973-2880. https://antrocom.net/archives/2024/volume-20-number-2/a-new-interpretation-of-the-mushroom-madness-of-new-guinea/. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "小美牛肝菌所致精神障碍2例". 临床精神医学杂志 24 (2014) (4): 240. 2014. ISSN 1005-3220. OCLC 62606034. https://caod.oriprobe.com/articles/42487177/xiao_mei_niu_gan_jun_suo_zhi_jing_shen_zhang_ai_2_.htm. "[Translated:] Both patients were young women who came to our hospital for treatment in July 2011 and May 2012 respectively because of "auditory and visual hallucinations 12 hours after eating porcini mushrooms". Both patients developed symptoms 6 to 12 hours after eating stir-fried porcini mushrooms (about 250-500 g). One patient presented with "Lilliputian hallucinations" accompanied by auditory hallucinations, saying that she felt like she had entered Lilliputian, where there were little people less than 33 cm tall everywhere, with various faces, wearing red and green, lively and extremely naughty, and her voices could be heard. The mushrooms around her were colorful. The patient thought that world was very beautiful. Because she was afraid that these images would disappear, she kept chanting Buddhist scriptures, shouting, and staying up all night. The other patient had visual and auditory hallucinations, saw many small animals such as rabbits and squirrels around her out of thin air, heard their cries, felt that these small animals were going to bite her, slapped her hands in the air, was nervous and afraid, and dared not fall asleep. She had a healthy past and denied exposure to toxins and substance abuse. The vital signs of the two patients were stable, and the gastrointestinal symptoms were mild (nausea, stomach discomfort); no positive signs were found in the neurological and physical examinations. No obvious abnormal results were found in the auxiliary examinations. One of the patients had a blood sample sent to the Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Toxicology for serum toxicology examination, which showed that the concentration of tramadol in the serum was 0.5 ug/ml, which was a toxic dose. The two patients were given gastric lavage, fluid replacement and other treatments on the day of consultation, and haloperidol 2.5-10 mg/d was injected intramuscularly. After 5 days, the mental symptoms disappeared.". 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents". Biomedicines 11 (2): 461. February 2023. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11020461. PMID 36830997. "Table 2. Classification of psychoactive mushrooms, bioactive markers, and psychotropic mechanism according to Guzman et al. [42]. [...] Group: 4. Psychoactive Markers: Indole-type alkaloids. Scaffold: Not fully identified. Example: Chemical studies are still required. Psychotropic Mechanism: Not elucidated yet. Representative Mushroom Genus: Boletus, Heimiella, Russula and some gasteromycetes. [...] Finally, in the fourth group, Guzman suggested to gather basidiomycetes of the Russula, Boletus, and Heimiella genera, as well as other gasteroid mushrooms, which are recognized as sacred in different tribes worldwide but lack accurate chemical identification of their psychoactive compounds. In this context, chemical and pharmacological studies featuring these basidiomycetes are still required to have their psychoactive markers identified. [...] Table 3. Structure, sources, and extraction methods of some representative mushroom-derived indole alkaloids. [...] Indole Type: β-carbolines. Alkaloid: β-Carboline-1-propanoic acid. Fungal Sources: Boletus curtisii and Cortinarius brunneus. Extraction Methods: [...] Ref.: [55,65].". 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 "New Studies on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: History, Diversity, and Applications in Psychiatry". Int J Med Mushrooms 17 (11): 1019–1029. 2015. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.v17.i11.10. PMID 26853956. "Concerning the bolets and russules (Figs. 4 and 5), these mushrooms were used in Papua New Guinea some time ago, in some shamanic practices.12,13 They produced some stages of madness in the people12–14; however, we have but little and confusing information on them, even though the first works began in 1947.14 We also have information on some edible bolets from China,15,16 where some bolets are sold in the markets, but with the advice from the sellers, that it is necessary to cook the mushrooms well. In some reports, the raw mushrooms produced visions of some little men or soldiers marching on the table.16 [...] Some bolets and russules were used in Papua New Guinea,4,12–14 and certainly edible bolets producing hallucinations were used in China if they were not well cooked.15,16 [...] Of these works, that by Dikov described some anthropoid petroglyphs in Siberia, which seem to be representations of the use of A. muscaria by the Siberians. However, Guzmán studied copies of those petroglyphs shown by Samorini33 and observed some isolated fungoid figures that are similar to some bolets. If this is true, we have an interesting connection with those bolets used in Papua New Guinea and China,15,16 which needs more study.". 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Yu, Fuqiang; Guerin-Laguette, Alexis; Wang, Yun (2020). "Edible Mushrooms and Their Cultural Importance in Yunnan, China". Mushrooms, Humans and Nature in a Changing World. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 163–204. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37378-8_6. ISBN 978-3-030-37377-1. "Some boletes known as "jian-shou-qing" (turning blue when bruised or cut) are considered hallucinogenic, causing visions that Yunnan's people call "xiao-ren-ren" (little men or little people, similar to the "Lilliputian hallucinations" found in the Kuma people from New Guinea) (Arora 2008). Among these boletes are Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Lanmaoa asiatica, and Sutorius magnificus, all commonly collected in Yunnan and even more popular than porcini (Fig. 6.10) (Wang et al. 2004). Though some of these species can cause gastrointestinal distress, the local people continue to consume them (Arora 2008)." 
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 Arora, David (2008). "Notes on Economic Mushrooms. Xiao Ren Ren: The "Little People" of Yunnan". Economic Botany (New York Botanical Garden Press) 62 (3): 540–544. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9049-0. ISSN 0013-0001. https://i.warosu.org/data/sci/img/0147/14/1659226200674553.pdf. Retrieved 18 February 2025. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Hallucinogenic Boletes in China?". Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds 7: 33. 1997. https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/sz/stijve.pdf. "During a recent trip to China, the American mycologist David Arora observed that in some regions more than 50 different boletes are sold and eaten. Most popular are strongly blueing species. Arora was surprised to learn that everybody, i.e. farmers, pickers, sellers and shopkeepers gave warnings which all amounted to the same thing: if you don't cook those boletes well enough, you will see "the little men". This was of course most intriguing, and Arora actually interviewed some persons who could matter-of-factly recount their experiences. A young woman working as a computer operator remembered vividly that, when she was a child, she and her sister (the two youngest in the family) showed symptoms after having eaten blueing boletes at home. She recalled very clearly that walls and shapes were moving, and when she stared at a dripping water faucet, each droplet falling in the sink would turn into an insect and crawl away. This continued for as long as two days (!), and their mother never again served boletes to her family. A more recent case concerned a university graduate who consumed apparently unsufficiently cooked boletes and soon after saw a whole regiment of 2 cm tall soldiers marching over the table-cloth. This is rather odd, since psychoactive boletes are unknown in Europe and in the USA. There is only the well-known work of Roger Heim et al. mentioning the use of boletes by the Kuma tribe of New Guinea to induce a kind of collective mania. However, these authors were unable to isolate any active principle, and its very existence has been questioned. The self-experiments made by the investigators did not convince them. I would appreciate to hear from readers who heard about or underwent similar experiences, in China or elsewhere. Any suggestions as to the identity of these boletes would be most welcome.". 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "In Search of the Xiao Ren Ren". Mushroom Society of Utah: Winter Speaker Series. Mushroom Society of Utah. 12 November 2024. https://www.utahmushrooms.org/events-1. Retrieved 24 February 2025. "Colin Domnauer is a PhD candidate in Biology at the University of Utah. His research has taken him from the tropical forests of southern China to the remote mountains of the northern Philippines in search of an elusive ethnomycological mystery: a hallucinogenic bolete mushroom reported to induce visions of little people, the Lanmaoa asiatica. In his lecture, Colin unraveled the story of these enigmatic mushrooms, from their ethnographic history to modern relevance, weaving in scientific insights gained along his journey in uncovering the unknown psychoactive compounds in this mysterious mushroom." 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "云南蘑菇中毒事件中的毒蘑菇物种多样性" (in zh). 菌物学报 41 (9): 1416. 2022. doi:10.13346/j.mycosystema.210488. ISSN 1672-6472. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "急性兰茂牛肝菌中毒的流行病学及临床特点分析" (in zh). 临床急诊杂志 24 (5): 258–261. 2023. doi:10.13201/j.issn.1009-5918.2023.05.007. ISSN 1009-5918. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 "Mushroom Poisoning Outbreaks - China, 2022". China CDC Weekly 5 (3): 45–50. January 2023. doi:10.46234/ccdcw2023.009. PMID 36776462. 
  12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 "Reports of Psychoactive Bolete Mushrooms". ESPD55 (Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs 55). McKenna Academy of Natural Philosophy. 24 May 2022. https://mckenna.academy/mka-speakers/colin-domnauer-reports-psychoactive-boletes/. "For more than half a century, the existence of certain species of mushrooms in the family Boletaceae ("boletes") possessing psychoactive properties has been rumored, with independent ethnographic reports emerging from Papúa New Guinea and China. In both cases, local inhabitants describe consuming a type of bolete mushroom, followed by the occurrence of various hallucinations, generally characterized by a perception of being surrounded by an abundance of colorful, diminutive creatures – clinically referred to as "Lilliputian Hallucinations". Despite the numerous and suggestive reports, the identity of psychoactive boletes remains a mycological mystery. To this date, no rigorous scientific studies have been performed that conclusively reveal the taxonomic identity or active chemical constituents of this unstudied group of psychoactive mushrooms. In this presentation, the history of psychoactive bolete reports is compiled together, our scant sum of knowledge on the topic is summarized, and future directions for research are suggested." 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Dai, Ruanxian; Duan, Zhantao; Yang, Jing; Ning, Deyuan; Liu, Yu; Gong, Bing; Meng, Qiang (2024). "Neuropsychiatric symptoms following the consumption of Lanmaoa asiatica, a poisonous mushroom native to Yunnan". Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine 31 (6): 299–303. doi:10.1002/hkj2.12046. ISSN 1024-9079. 
  14. ↑ "Leroy's elusive little people: A systematic review on lilliputian hallucinations". Neurosci Biobehav Rev 125: 627–636. June 2021. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.002. PMID 33676962. 
  15. ↑ "A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond". Biotechnol Adv 69. December 2023. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247. PMID 37659744. 
  16. ↑ "Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology". Mycol Res 107 (Pt 2): 131–146. February 2003. doi:10.1017/s0953756203007305. PMID 12747324. 
  17. ↑ "The most widely recognized mushroom: chemistry of the genus Amanita". Life Sci 78 (5): 532–538. December 2005. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.09.003. PMID 16203016. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/N_Oberlies_Most_2005.pdf. 
  18. ↑ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 Treu, Roland; Adamson, Win (2006). "Ethnomycological notes from Papua New Guinea". https://auspace.athabascau.ca/handle/2149/1669. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 "Psychoactive card XIII: Boletus manicus". Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds 4: 167–174. 2000. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=4440227476399835497. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Thomas B. (2003). "Boletus manicus Heim". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 35 (3): 393–4. doi:10.1080/02791072.2003.10400024. PMID 14621139. 
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 Linchu, Guan; Kuang, Peizi (1991). "The Use of Psychopharmacological Agents in China: Historical and Current Perspectives". International Journal of Mental Health 20 (1): 4–11. doi:10.1080/00207411.1991.11449181. ISSN 0020-7411. http://ir.psych.ac.cn/bitstream/311026/9825/1/The%20use%20of%20psychopharmacological%20agents%20in%20China-__%20Historical%20and%20current%20perspectives.%20.pdf. Retrieved 25 February 2025. 
  22. ↑ "Hallucinogen Use in China". Sino-Platonic Papers (318). October 2021. ISSN 2157-9679. "[Daoist Ge Hong (~300CE), in The Master Who Embraces Simplicity 抱朴子:] "Rou zhi 肉芝 (Flesh Spirit Mushroom): If you see a little person seven to eight cun 寸 [3-33cm] tall riding in a carriage when you travel on a mountain, you have encountered a flesh spirit mushroom. Consume it raw and you will attain transcendence immediately."". 
  23. ↑ Che, Hannah (30 June 2024), How a chef in Yunnan cooks mushrooms, https://hannahche.substack.com/p/how-a-chef-in-yunnan-cooks-mushrooms, retrieved 24 February 2025, "Jianshouqing (见手青, Lanmaoa asiatica), native to Yunnan province, is a species of boletus that turns blueish green upon bruising or contact. It's also called red porcini mushroom (红牛肝菌) and similar to the lurid bolete (Suillellus luridus), although not poisonous. The mushroom is infamous in Yunnan for its hallucinogenic compounds, which may or may not be removable by cooking. Locals here eat it regularly and advise to cook it at least thirty minutes to be safe, but a few people still end up in the hospital every year with visions of little dancing men (xiao ren ren). Chuntian Jiejie said she cooked these for an hour. Currently, no one knows what exactly in the mushrooms causes these hallucinations, but it's different from those found in psilocybin mushrooms." 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Wong, Maggie (15 July 2023). "Mushroom diplomacy: US Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen sets off culinary craze in China". https://www.cnn.com/travel/yunnan-cuisine-beijing-restaurant-mushrooms-yellen-intl-hnk/index.html. 
  25. ↑ 人物 (15 September 2023). "在云南，吃菌子带来的10000种幻觉" (in zh). https://finance.sina.cn/2023-09-15/detail-imzmtyfq2466394.d.html. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Carreon, Mary (21 May 2024). "That One Time the US Treasury Secretary Ate Shrooms in China". https://doubleblindmag.com/janet-yellen-eats-shrooms/. 
  27. ↑ "想產生幻覺見亡女一面 雲南婦連8年吃毒菇「見手青」" (in zh). 2 July 2014. https://www.ettoday.net/news/20140702/374238.htm. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 "Mushroom poisoning in Hong Kong: a ten-year review". Hong Kong Med J 22 (2): 124–130. April 2016. doi:10.12809/hkmj154706. PMID 26980450. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Heil, Emily (16 August 2023). "Yes, Janet Yellen ate magic mushrooms. Here's why she didn't get high.". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/08/16/janet-yellen-magic-mushrooms-china/. ""I was not aware that these mushrooms had hallucinogenic properties," Yellen said with a laugh, [...] That's the way locals in the Yunnan province, where they are wild-foraged, typically see these mushrooms, says Colin Domnauer, a PhD candidate at the University of Utah, who has been studying them. Domnauer notes that while Americans and other westerners might prize such a mushroom because of its psychedelic qualities, the locals value it for its taste — which he describes as umami-laden and porcini-like, albeit a bit less nutty. "There's a difference in cultural attitude about the psychoactive effect — it's like the food itself is more important than this property," he says. [...] So what could explain those Lilliputian apparitions? [...] Yellen said she had read that "if the mushrooms are cooked properly, which I'm sure they were at this very good restaurant, that they have no impact." And indeed, she said, "all of us enjoyed the mushrooms, the restaurant, and none of us felt any ill effects." Domnauer recently visited Yunnan to collect samples, and he, too, dined on the local delicacy at a hot pot restaurant. There, the staff set out a timer and instructed diners to cook the mushrooms in the boiling liquid for at least 15 minutes before eating it, he said, adding that nobody experienced any hallucinations. [...] So what could explain those Lilliputian apparitions? Maybe something entirely novel, Domnauer says, possibly a compound that could have exciting uses in medicine or other applications. He likened it to when mycologists first learned about psilocybin, which is now used in various psychiatric treatments, in the 1950s after studying the mushrooms used in ancient ceremonies in northern Mexico. "There was a time when no one outside this small group in Oaxaca knew about it, and now it's spread all over," he says. [...]" 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Kats, Hayley (13 April 2023). "Bryn's Boletes". https://smallhold.com/blogs/blog-3/bryns-boletes. "We hear that you are the expert on boletes, [...] Is it true that there is a bolete with psychoactive properties? Tell us more. We don't know. There are reports of psychoactive boletes from New Guinea and southern China. This may be a coincidence. The implicated boletes in New Guinea, originally reported in the 1930s as "mushroom madness" in highland communities, were later putatively identified and tested for indolic compounds, i.e., ones related to psilocybin and LSD, but the results were inconclusive. There haven't been any follow up studies or further documentation of the phenomenon in New Guinea since these studies in the 1970s and it is unclear if there is an actual material basis for the "madness" or what the source may be, boletes or mushrooms or something completely different. On the other hand, reports of intoxication causing "Lilliputian hallucinations" (seeing "little people") following consumption of undercooked or improperly prepared boletes occur regularly in southern China. The implicated species is known as Lanmaoa asiatica, but a great deal of confusion and contradictory information surrounds its identity as well as the source of the intoxications. We don't even know if the reports are connected to a true physiological effect, let alone what causes it. We're currently working on disentangling this mystery." 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 "OS52-003 Searching for Psychoactive Bolete Mushrooms". 91st Annual Meeting of the Mycological Society of America. Mycological Society of America. July 2023. https://msafungi.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/MSA-2023-Abstract-Book-1.pdf#page=31. "For over half a century, the existence of certain species of mushrooms in the family Boletaceae ("boletes") possessing psychoactive properties has been rumored. Such claims have developed across multiple continents, with independent ethnographic reports emerging from Papua New Guinea and Yunnan, China. In both cases, local inhabitants describe consuming an undercooked bolete mushroom which results in the occurrence of visual hallucinations. Curiously, these hallucinations are consistently experienced as a perception of being surrounded by an abundance of colorful, diminutive creatures—a phenomenon clinically referred to as "Lilliputian Hallucinations". Despite the numerous anecdotal reports, the identity and nature of such psychoactive boletes remain unknown. Here, we present a preliminary phylogenetic study resolving taxonomic relationships to the suspected psychoactive bolete from Yunnan in the recently erected genus Lanmaoa. Type specimens for 12 of the 13 currently accepted species in Lanmaoa were obtained and sequenced, many for the first time, revealing common misapplication of names to publicly available specimens, widespread cryptic species, and the presence of several undescribed taxa. Additionally, early genomic analysis has revealed the notable absence of biosynthetic gene clusters known to be involved in the production of the psychoactive fungal metabolites psilocybin and ibotenic acid, possibly indicating a novel category of hallucinogenic mushrooms is involved." 
  32. ↑ Valinsky, Jordan (15 August 2023). "Janet Yellen explains her 'magic mushroom' experience in China". https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/15/business/janet-yellen-magic-mushrooms-china/index.html. 
  33. ↑ Sullivan, Helen (16 August 2023). "Janet Yellen inadvertently ate hallucinogenic mushrooms in China – and started a trend". https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/aug/16/janet-yellen-inadvertently-ate-hallucinogenic-mushrooms-in-china-and-started-a-trend. 
  34. ↑ Roeloffs, Mary Whitfill (16 August 2023). "Did Janet Yellen Accidentally Eat Psychedelics In China? What To Know About The Sold-Out Dish Cooked With Hallucinogenic Mushrooms". https://www.forbes.com/sites/maryroeloffs/2023/08/16/did-janet-yellen-accidentally-eat-psychedelics-in-china-what-to-know-about-the-sold-out-dish-cooked-with-hallucinogenic-mushrooms/. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "[Post by Colin Domnauer"]. 1 June 2024. https://www.instagram.com/p/C7rDl_AgSBM/?img_index=1. "Everyone loves the magical color changing mushrooms! I travelled to Sagada in the Philippine Cordilleras to investigate their blue-staining boletes, known locally as "Sedesdem", which are regularly eaten, and irregularly lead to seeing the "Ansisit", or little people. The same psychoactive effects have been independently reported from consuming blue-staining boletes elsewhere, such as in Yunnan and Papua New Guinea. But little remains known, such as if these are all the same species, or what chemical(s) are involved. I was fortunate enough to collect samples so we can begin answering these and other interesting questions about this fascinating group of magic mushrooms. Of course, the real magic is the connections made through the journey itself. Thank you [...] and our indigenous guides for making the experience possible and pleasurable!" 
  36. ↑ "Mushroom-Derived Indole Alkaloids". J Nat Prod 80 (7): 2178–2187. July 2017. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00390. PMID 28722414. Bibcode: 2017JNAtP..80.2178H. "β-Carboline-1-propanoic acid (79) and its methylated derivative (80) have been identified in specimens of Boletus curtisii, a mushroom that forms a mycorrhizal relationship with hardwood and conifer trees across North America.94 [...] it has been suggested this molecule [(79)] could interact with both the benzodiazepine and GABA receptors.96 [...] The aforementioned Boletus curtisii produces an interesting collection of sulfur-containing β-carboline derivatives.94 The bright yellow coloration of this species has been attributed to the optically active, sulfoxide-containing pigments curtisin (87) and 9-deoxycurtisin (88).94 These compounds are derived from canthin-6-one (89), which was also identified in the extracts of B. curtisii along with four thiomethyl β-carboline derivatives (90−93).94". 
  37. ↑ Bröckelmann, Martin G.; Dasenbrock, Johannes; Steffan, Bert; Steglich, Wolfgang; Wang, Yuekui; Raabe, Gerhard; Fleischhauer, Jörg (2004). "An Unusual Series of Thiomethylated Canthin-6-ones from the North American Mushroom Boletus curtisii". European Journal of Organic Chemistry 2004 (23): 4856–4863. doi:10.1002/ejoc.200400519. ISSN 1434-193X. 
  38. ↑ Dadáková, Eva; Pelikánová, Tamara; Kalač, Pavel (2009). "Content of biogenic amines and polyamines in some species of European wild-growing edible mushrooms". European Food Research and Technology 230 (1): 163–171. doi:10.1007/s00217-009-1148-3. ISSN 1438-2377. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225635120. 
  39. ↑ "Analysis of Volatile Flavor Substances in the Enzymatic Hydrolysate of Lanmaoa asiatica Mushroom and Its Maillard Reaction Products Based on E-Nose and GC-IMS". Foods 11 (24): 4056. December 2022. doi:10.3390/foods11244056. PMID 36553801. 
  40. ↑ "Pulvinic Acid Derivative Pigments in Lanmaoa asiatica and L. macrocarpa". Chem Biodivers 21 (5). May 2024. doi:10.1002/cbdv.202301996. PMID 38509847. 
  41. ↑ "Two alkenyl phenol derivatives from the fungus Pestalotiopsis clavata JSQ 12 isolated from the mushroom Lanmaoa asiatica". Nat Prod Res 39 (15): 4488–4492. June 2024. doi:10.1080/14786419.2024.2367012. PMID 38867712. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/26028891. 
  42. ↑ "Chemical constituents from the fruiting bodies of Lanmaoa asiatica and their anti-inflammatory activity". Fitoterapia 183. April 2025. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2025.106531. PMID 40204044. 
  43. ↑ Hamilton Morris (31 March 2022). "Pod 44: New natural psychedelics with Dr. Dennis McKenna". The Hamilton Morris Podcast (Podcast). Patreon. Event occurs at 59:00–1:03:20. Retrieved 1 March 2025.
  44. ↑ "Untargeted Metabolomic Analysis Using UPLC-MS/MS Reveals Metabolic Changes Associated With Lanmaoa asiatica Poisoning". Food Sci Nutr 13 (7). July 2025. doi:10.1002/fsn3.70583. PMID 40635726. 
Short description: Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

"Magic mushroom" redirects here. For other uses, see Magic mushroom (disambiguation).
Psilocybe semilanceata

Psilocybin mushroom[lower-alpha 1] is a type of hallucinogenic mushroom and a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which is metabolised into the psychedelic compound psilocin following ingestion.[2] Rather than referring to one single mushroom species, the term "psilocybin mushroom" refers to a broad group of fungi found across several genera.[3] Other compounds such as baeocystin, norbaeocystin, aeruginascin, and β-carbolines may modulate effects. The most potent species are members of genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.[2]

Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs.[2] While psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically in pre-Columbian Mexico for religious and divinatory purposes, their historical use elsewhere was rare and is often exaggerated.[4] Such practices were suppressed after European colonization.

Modern Western interest began in the mid-20th century with figures like R. Gordon Wasson and Timothy Leary popularizing their study and use. Legal status varies widely, with some U.S. states decriminalizing or allowing therapeutic use, and international treaties generally regulate only the active compounds, not the mushrooms themselves. Research has increasingly focused on therapeutic potential for depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders. Recent scientific literature has also expanded interest in the taxonomy, ecology, and neurobiology of psilocybin-containing fungi, not only their psychoactive properties.[5][6]

Natural occurrence

See also: Biology:List of psilocybin mushroom species
Indoor cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis
Non-Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include Pluteus salicinus (left), Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center), and Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus subbalteatus (right)

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1).[7][8] Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms[9]

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[10] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[11] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[7] P. cubensis is the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[12] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[10] In 2023, two new Psilocybe species (Hymenogastraceae), P. ingeli and P. maluti, were described from southern Africa.[13][14]


Psilocybin-containing mushrooms occupy a variety of ecological niches depending on the species and genus. Some species are commonly associated with decomposing wood, grasslands, forest soils, mossy environments, or animal dung.[15][16]

Scientists also classify these fungi using both visible mushroom traits and newer DNA-based methods, which has helped improve identification and distinguish psychoactive species from similar-looking non-psychoactive or potentially toxic mushrooms.[17]

Ecologically, these fungi are generally saprotrophs, meaning they obtain nutrients by breaking down dead organic material in their environments. This helps explain why many species are found on decaying wood, plant litter, rich soils, or dung-based substrates.[18].[19] Habitat also differs by genus. Species of Panaeolus are especially associated with dung-rich habitats and grasslands, while many Pluteus and Gymnopilus species are more often linked to decaying wood and woody debris.[20]' Recent phylogenomic research has also increased scientific interest in the possible ecological role of psilocybin itself. One proposed idea is that psilocybin may be involved in fungal interactions with insects, although researchers have also noted that direct empirical evidence for this remains limited.[21] Geographic records are still incomplete in many regions, and recent studies have emphasized that global biodiversity data for psychedelic fungi remain uneven. This means the currently documented distribution of psilocybin-containing mushrooms may still underestimate their full ecological range.[16][22]

Composition

Active psilocybin mushroom constituents
Phosphorylated Dephosphorylated HTR?
Norbaeocystin (4-PO-T) 4-Hydroxytryptamine (4-HT) No
Baeocystin (4-PO-NMT) Norpsilocin (4-HO-NMT) No
Psilocybin (4-PO-DMT) Psilocin (4-HO-DMT) Yes
Aeruginascin (4-PO-TMT) 4-HO-TMT No
Notes: (1) The phosphorylated constituents are or are thought to be prodrugs of the dephosphorylated constituents. (2) The head-twitch response (HTR) is a behavioral proxy of psychedelic-like effects in rodents. Refs: [2][23][24][25]

Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[26] Its principal component is psilocybin,[27] which is converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effects.[28][29] Besides psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present, which might result in an entourage effect and modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[2][26] Animal studies suggest that the effects of pure psilocybin or psilocin and psilocybin mushrooms may be different and support the possibility of such an entourage effect with psilocybin mushrooms.[2][30][31] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[26]

Certain mushrooms are found to produce β-carbolines, such as harmine, harmane, tetrahydroharmine (THH), and harmaline, which inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids, and have other actions.[32][2] They occur in different genera, such as Psilocybe,[32][33] Cyclocybe,[34] and Hygrophorus.[35] Harmine, harmane, norharmane, and a range of other β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.[32] β-Carbolines in psilocybin mushrooms may inhibit the metabolism of psilocybin and other constituents and thereby potentiate their effects.[32]

Uses

Psilocybin-containing mushrooms may be used in whole form, for example consumption of dried or fresh mushrooms, or may be turned into extracts or food products such as mushroom edibles or mushroom tea. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms and products, as well as products containing related compounds like 4-AcO-DMT, may be purchased at smart shops like psychedelic mushroom stores in some jurisdictions. Another related psilocybin-containing fungus is magic truffles, which are not technically mushrooms themselves but are the sclerotia or mycelium of psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

Dosing

A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms

The dose of psilocybin-containing mushrooms depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species.[36][2][37] Psilocybin content is typically around 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight of the mushroom, with a range of 0.03% to 1.78%.[2][38][39][40][41] Psilocin is also often present in the mushrooms, with a range of 0% to 0.59%, and can be on par with or an order of magnitude lower than psilocybin levels.[38][2] Psilocybe cubensis, the most popular species, has been reported to contain 0.63% psilocybin and 0.6% psilocin, or about 1.2% of psilocybin and psilocin combined.[38] However, there is significant variation in different P. cubensis strains.[42][43] The 'Penis Envy' strain of P. cubensis is considered to be more potent than other strains.[42] Psilocybin levels appear to be highest in P. cyanescens and/or P. azurescens.[2][38][44]

Recreational doses of psilocybin mushrooms are typically between 1.0 and 3.5–5.0 g of dry mushrooms and 10 to 50 g of fresh mushrooms.[36][39] This corresponds to a dose of psilocybin of about 10 to 50 mg.[39] Usual doses of the common species P. cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose and above 5.0 g is considered a heavy dose.[45] A 5.0 g dose of dried mushroom is often referred to as a "heroic dose".[46] In terms of psilocybin dosing, subthreshold or microdoses are <2.5 mg, low doses are 5 to 10 mg, the intermediate or "good effect" dose is 20 mg, and high or ego-dissolution doses are 30 to 40 mg.[47][36] A 20 mg dose of psilocybin is equivalent to about 100 μg LSD or about 500 mg mescaline.[47] With regard to psilocybin and psilocin equivalence, psilocin is about 1.4-fold more potent than psilocybin (i.e., 1.4 mg psilocybin equals about 1.0 mg psilocin), which is the same difference as the molecular weights of the two compounds.[38][48][49]

Microdosing has become a popular technique for many users, which involves taking <1.0 g of dried mushrooms for an experience that is not as intense or powerful, but recreationally enjoyable, or fully non-hallucinogenic, and potentially alleviating for symptoms of depression.[50] A microdose of psilocybin mushrooms is about 10% of a recreational dose, and may be 0.1 to 0.3 g of dry mushrooms, taken up to three times per week.[51]

"Lemon tek" or "lemon tekking" is a method sometimes used by recreational psilocybin users.[52][53][54] It involves soaking psilocybin-containing mushrooms in citric acid-containing lemon juice to supposedly convert their psilocybin content into psilocin prior to administration.[52][53][54] This is claimed to hasten their onset, cause a sharper and more intense peak, and shorten their duration.[52][53][54]

Effects

Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated "mushroom" the least harmful drug overall and for users, and the only drug that did not get any scores for harm on others.[55]

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects.[56] Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.[57] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[58] The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dose, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[59]

Sensory effects

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[60] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[60] Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[61]

Emotional effects

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent upon set and setting.[60] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[60] A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'[62] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose.[63]

Recent research has also increased interest in the possible therapeutic effects of psilocybin in controlled settings, especially for depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders, though current findings are still being studied and should be interpreted carefully.[64]

Contraindications

Adverse effects

Toxicity

Psilocybe mexicana

The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, the psilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins; psilocybin and psilocin.[65] The median lethal dose, also known as "LD50", of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.[66]

From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult to overdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than 1.2 kg of dried Psilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.[40]

Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acute serotonin syndrome.[67] A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.[68]

Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.[67] However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.[69]

A more common public health concern than overdose is accidental misidentification, since some psychoactive mushroom species can resemble non-psychoactive or toxic mushrooms.[70]

Interactions

Pharmacology

History

Early

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

The use of psilocybin mushrooms by humans in religious ceremonies dating back thousands of years is contested.[71] Despite popular narratives portraying psychedelics as ancient, widespread, and primarily used by shamans for therapeutic healing, careful anthropological and historical research shows their traditional use was limited, recent, and culturally specific, with modern Western interpretations largely shaped by idealization, tourism, and ideological agendas.[71] Reliable evidence shows that psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically in pre-Columbian Mexico but were otherwise rare, with most claims of ancient widespread use being exaggerated or misinterpreted.[71]

The Tassili Mushroom Figure was discovered in Tassili, Algeria has been argued to provide evidence of an early psilocybin-containing mushroom cult.[72] 6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been argued to be Psilocybe hispanica, a hallucinogenic species native to the area. Some scholars have also interpreted archaeological artifacts from Mexico and the so-called Mayan "mushroom stones" of Guatemala as evidence of ritual and ceremonial use of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica.[73]: 11 

The hallucinogenic[74] species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.[75] Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.[76] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.[77]

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[78] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[79]

A 2024 research paper identified Psilocybe maluti as a new described species from the Free State Province of South Africa and Lesotho in Southern Africa.[80] Anecdotal reports suggests the mushroom was used spiritually and traditionally by Basotho healers, marking it the only documented instance of traditional hallucinogenic mushroom use in Africa and the earliest recorded reference to such practices in Sub-Saharan Africa.[80]

Modern

Psilocybe allenii

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[81]

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[82] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe,[83] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[84][85]

Sticker art and Latrinalia related to the culture of Psilocybin mushrooms, Sydney, 2025

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism.[86] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[87]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. Psilocybin retreats such as MycoMeditations also exist in countries like Jamaica, where psilocybin mushrooms are legal.[79] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[88] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Modern scientific and cultural interest in psilocybin mushrooms has continued to grow, especially because of renewed psychiatric and neuroscientific research in the 21st century[89]

Society and culture

Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms


The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.

After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.[90] In 2022 Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,[91] though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.[92][93] Other jurisdictions in the United States have decriminalized psilocybin mushrooms.

Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.[94] This is because only fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.[95] A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.[96]

United Nations

Main article: Medicine:Convention on Psychotropic Substances
Article 32 makes an exception for psilocybin mushroom and other wild psychotropic plants, to protect use in religious rituals in case such plants themselves were in the future added to Schedule I.

Internationally, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin, are Schedule I drugs under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing them are not subject to international control:[97]

The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention... Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin.

Research

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders.[98][99] In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[100]

More recent review articles have expanded scientific interest in psilocybin-related research, especially in psychiatry, neuroscience, and psychopharmacology. Researchers have focused on possible applications involving depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders, while also emphasizing the need for continued controlled study.[101][102]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Also known as psilocybin-containing mushrooms, magic mushrooms, or shrooms.[1]

References

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  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 "A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond". Biotechnol Adv 69. December 2023. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247. PMID 37659744. 
  3. ↑ Strauss, Dominique; Ghosh, Soumya; Murray, Zurika; Gryzenhout, Marieka (2022-05-23). "An Overview on the Taxonomy, Phylogenetics and Ecology of the Psychedelic Genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus and Gymnopilus" (in English). Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 5. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.813998. ISSN 2624-893X. Bibcode: 2022FrFGC...5.3998S. 
  4. ↑ "The ancient psychedelics myth: 'People tell tourists the stories they think are interesting for them'" (in en-GB). The Guardian. 2025-05-01. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/may/01/the-ancient-psychedelics-myth-people-tell-tourists-the-stories-they-think-are-interesting-for-them. 
  5. ↑ "Psilocybin: A New Chapter in Mental Health Research" (in en). https://bodyofharmony.com/blogs/health-news/latest-psilocybin-research. 
  6. ↑ Adeyinka, Dotun; Forsyth, Dayna; Currie, Suzanne; Faraone, Nicoletta (2025-08-05). "Neurobiology of psilocybin: a comprehensive overview and comparative analysis of experimental models" (in English). Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 19. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2025.1585367. ISSN 1662-5137. PMID 40894380. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Guzmán, G.; Allen, J.W.; Gartz, J. (2000). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto: Sezione Archeologia, Storia, Scienze Naturali 14: 189–280. http://www.museocivico.rovereto.tn.it/UploadDocs/104_art09-Guzman%20&%20C.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2022. 
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  86. ↑ "Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment: A 34-Year Follow-Up Study". Bulletin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies 9 (4): 10–18. 1999. https://maps.org/news-letters/v09n4/09410con.bk.html. Retrieved March 26, 2021. 
  87. ↑ Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-06-165593-7. https://archive.org/details/harvardpsychedel00latt/page/37. 
  88. ↑ Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "Thirty years of Oaxacan ethnography". in Monaghan, John. Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=RZxCCImjN-gC&pg=PA165. 
  89. ↑ Omidian, Hossein; Omidian, Alborz (2025-04-09). "The Emergence of Psilocybin in Psychiatry and Neuroscience". Pharmaceuticals 18 (4): 555. doi:10.3390/ph18040555. ISSN 1424-8247. PMID 40283990. 
  90. ↑ "Oregon Measure 109, Psilocybin Mushroom Services Program Initiative (2020)". Nov 3, 2020. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020). 
  91. ↑ Brown, Jennifer (10 November 2022). "Colorado becomes second state to legalize "magic mushrooms"" (in en-US). http://coloradosun.com/2022/11/09/proposition-122-colorado-results-psilocybin-mushrooms-2/. 
  92. ↑ Kenny, Andrew (July 4, 2023). "A gray market emerges in Colorado after voters approved psychedelic substances". https://www.npr.org/2023/07/04/1185922732/a-gray-market-emerges-in-colorado-after-voters-approved-psychedelic-substances. 
  93. ↑ "Colorado Proposition 122, Decriminalization and Regulated Access Program for Certain Psychedelic Plants and Fungi Initiative (2022)". Nov 8, 2022. https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_122,_Decriminalization_and_Regulated_Access_Program_for_Certain_Psychedelic_Plants_and_Fungi_Initiative_(2022). 
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  100. ↑ "FDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". November 22, 2019. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191122005452/en/FDA-grants-Breakthrough-Therapy-Designation-to-Usona-Institutes-psilocybin-program-for-major-depressive-disorder. 
  101. ↑ Goel, Dev B; Zilate, Sarju (2022-10-12). "Potential Therapeutic Effects of Psilocybin: A Systematic Review". Cureus 14 (10). doi:10.7759/cureus.30214. ISSN 2168-8184. PMID 36381758. 
  102. ↑ Omidian, Hossein; Omidian, Alborz (2025-04-09). "The Emergence of Psilocybin in Psychiatry and Neuroscience". Pharmaceuticals 18 (4): 555. doi:10.3390/ph18040555. ISSN 1424-8247. PMID 40283990. 

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