Physics:Electron affinity (data page)

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Short description: Chemical data page

This page deals with the electron affinity as a property of isolated atoms or molecules (i.e. in the gas phase). Solid state electron affinities are not listed here.

Elements

Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. The latter can be regarded as the ionization energy of the –1 ion or the zeroth ionization energy.[1] Either convention can be used.[2]

Negative electron affinities can be used in those cases where electron capture requires energy, i.e. when capture can occur only if the impinging electron has a kinetic energy large enough to excite a resonance of the atom-plus-electron system. Conversely electron removal from the anion formed in this way releases energy, which is carried out by the freed electron as kinetic energy. Negative ions formed in these cases are always unstable. They may have lifetimes of the order of microseconds to milliseconds, and invariably autodetach after some time.

Z Element Name Electron affinity (eV) Electron affinity (kJ/mol) References
1 1H Hydrogen 0.754 195(19) 72.769(2) [3]
1 2H Deuterium 0.754 67(4) 72.814(4) [4]
2 He Helium −0.5(2) −48(20) estimated (est.)[5]
3 Li Lithium 0.618 049(22) 59.632 6(21) [6]
4 Be Beryllium −0.5(2) −48(20) est.[5]
5 B Boron 0.279 723(25) 26.989(3) [7]
6 12C Carbon 1.262 122 6(11) 121.776 3(1) [8]
6 13C Carbon 1.262 113 6(12) 121.775 5(2) [8]
7 N Nitrogen −0.07 −6.8 [5]
8 16O Oxygen 1.461 112 97(9) 140.975 970(9) [9]
8 17O Oxygen 1.461 108(4) 140.975 5(3) [10]
8 18O Oxygen 1.461 105(3) 140.975 2(3) [10]
9 F Fluorine 3.401 189 8(24) 328.164 9(3) [11][12]
10 Ne Neon −1.2(2) −116(19) est.[5]
11 Na Sodium 0.547 926(25) 52.867(3) [13]
12 Mg Magnesium −0.4(2) −40(19) est.[5]
13 Al Aluminium 0.432 83(5) 41.762(5) [14]
14 Si Silicon 1.389 521 2(8) 134.068 4(1) [15]
15 P Phosphorus 0.746 609(11) 72.037(1) [16]
16 32S Sulfur 2.077 104 2(6) 200.410 1(1) [15]
16 34S Sulfur 2.077 104 5(12) 200.410 1(2) [17]
17 Cl Chlorine 3.612 725(28) 348.575(3) [18]
18 Ar Argon −1.0(2) −96(20) est.[5]
19 K Potassium 0.501 459(13) 48.383(2) [19]
20 Ca Calcium 0.024 55(10) 2.37(1) [20]
21 Sc Scandium 0.179 380(23) 17.307 6(22) [21]
22 Ti Titanium 0.075 54(5) 7.289(5) [22]
23 V Vanadium 0.527 66(20) 50.911(20) [23]
24 Cr Chromium 0.675 928(27) 65.217 2(26) [21]
25 Mn Manganese −0.5(2) −50(19) est.[5]
26 Fe Iron 0.153 236(35) 14.785(4) [24]
27 Co Cobalt 0.662 255(47) 63.897 9(45) [25]
28 Ni Nickel 1.157 16(12) 111.65(2) [26]
29 Cu Copper 1.235 78(4) 119.235(4) [27]
30 Zn Zinc −0.6(2) −58(20) est.[5]
31 Ga Gallium 0.301 166(15) 29.058 1(15) [28]
32 Ge Germanium 1.232 676 4(13) 118.935 2(2) [29]
33 As Arsenic 0.804 8(2) 77.65(2) [30]
34 Se Selenium 2.020 604 7(12) 194.958 7(2) [31]
35 Br Bromine 3.363 588(3) 324.536 9(3) [11]
36 Kr Krypton −1.0(2) −96(20) est.[5]
37 Rb Rubidium 0.485 916(21) 46.884(3) [32]
38 Sr Strontium 0.052 06(6) 5.023(6) [33]
39 Y Yttrium 0.311 29(22) 30.035(21) [21]
40 Zr Zirconium 0.433 28(9) 41.806(9) [34]
41 Nb Niobium 0.917 40(7) 88.516(7) [35]
42 Mo Molybdenum 0.747 23(8) 72.097(8) [21]
43 Tc Technetium 0.55(20) 53(20) est.[36]
44 Ru Ruthenium 1.046 27(2) 100.950(3) [21]
45 Rh Rhodium 1.142 89(20) 110.27(2) [26]
46 Pd Palladium 0.562 14(12) 54.24(2) [26]
47 Ag Silver 1.304 47(3) 125.862(3) [27]
48 Cd Cadmium −0.7(2) −68(20) est.[5]
49 In Indium 0.383 92(6) 37.043(6) [37]
50 Sn Tin 1.112 070(2) 107.298 4(3) [38]
51 Sb Antimony 1.047 401(19) 101.059(2) [39]
52 Te Tellurium 1.970 875(7) 190.161(1) [40]
53 127I Iodine 3.059 046 5(37) 295.153 1(4) [41]
53 128I Iodine 3.059 052(38) 295.154(4) [42]
54 Xe Xenon −0.8(2) −77(20) est.[5]
55 Cs Caesium 0.471 630(25) 45.505(3) [13][43]
56 Ba Barium 0.144 62(6) 13.954(6) [44]
57 La Lanthanum 0.557 546(20) 53.795(2) [45]
58 Ce Cerium 0.600 160(27) 57.906 7(26) [46]
59 Pr Praseodymium 0.109 23(46) 10.539(45) [47]
60 Nd Neodymium 0.097 49(33) 9.406(32) [47]
61 Pm Promethium 0.129 12.45 [48]
62 Sm Samarium 0.162 15.63 [48]
63 Eu Europium 0.116(13) 11.2(13) [49]
64 Gd Gadolinium 0.212(30) 20.5(29) [21]
65 Tb Terbium 0.131 31(80) 12.670(77) [47]
66 Dy Dysprosium 0.015(3) 1.45(30) [50]
67 Ho Holmium 0.338 32.61 [48]
68 Er Erbium 0.312 30.10 [48]
69 Tm Thulium 1.029(22) 99(3) [51]
70 Yb Ytterbium −0.02 −1.93 est.[36]
71 Lu Lutetium 0.238 8(7) 23.04(7) [52]
72 Hf Hafnium 0.178 0(7) 17.18(7) [53]
73 Ta Tantalum 0.328 859(23) 31.730 1(22) [21]
74 W Tungsten 0.816 26(8) 78.76(1) [54]
75 Re Rhenium 0.060 396(64) 5.827 3(62) [55]
76 Os Osmium 1.077 661(24) 103.978 5(24) [21]
77 Ir Iridium 1.564 057(12) 150.908 6(12) [56]
78 Pt Platinum 2.125 10(5) 205.041(5) [57]
79 Au Gold 2.308 610(25) 222.747(3) [58]
80 Hg Mercury −0.5(2) −48(20) est.[5]
81 Tl Thallium 0.320 053(19) 30.880 4(19) [59]
82 Pb Lead 0.356 721(2) 34.418 3(3) [60]
83 Bi Bismuth 0.942 362(13) 90.924(2) [61]
84 Po Polonium 1.40(7) 136(7) calc.[62]
85 At Astatine 2.415 78(7) 233.087(8) [63]
86 Rn Radon −0.7(2) −68(20) est.[5]
87 Fr Francium 0.486 46.89 est.[64][36]
88 Ra Radium 0.10 9.648 5 est.[65][36]
89 Ac Actinium 0.35 33.77 est.[36]
90 Th Thorium 0.607 69(6) 58.633(6) [66]
91 Pa Protactinium 0.55 53.03 est.[67]
92 U Uranium 0.314 97(9) 30.390(9) [68]
93 Np Neptunium 0.48 45.85 est.[67]
94 Pu Plutonium −0.50 −48.33 est.[67]
95 Am Americium 0.10 9.93 est.[67]
96 Cm Curium 0.28 27.17 est.[67]
97 Bk Berkelium −1.72 −165.24 est.[67]
98 Cf Californium −1.01 −97.31 est.[67]
99 Es Einsteinium −0.30 −28.60 est.[67]
100 Fm Fermium 0.35 33.96 est.[67]
101 Md Mendelevium 0.98 93.91 est.[67]
102 No Nobelium −2.33 −223.22 est.[67]
103 Lr Lawrencium −0.31 −30.04 est.[67]
111 Rg Roentgenium 1.565 151.0 calc.[69]
113 Nh Nihonium 0.69 66.6 calc.[70]
115 Mc Moscovium 0.366 35.3 calc.[70]
116 Lv Livermorium 0.776 74.9 calc.[70]
117 Ts Tennessine 1.719 165.9 calc.[70]
118 Og Oganesson 0.080(6) 7.72(58) calc.[71]
119 Uue Ununennium 0.662 63.87 calc.[64]
120 Ubn Unbinilium 0.021 2.03 calc.[72]
121 Ubu Unbiunium 0.57 55 calc.[36]

Molecules

The electron affinities Eea of some molecules are given in the table below, from the lightest to the heaviest. Many more have been listed by Rienstra-Kiracofe et al. (2002). The electron affinities of the radicals OH and SH are the most precisely known of all molecular electron affinities.

Molecule Name Eea (eV) Eea (kJ/mol) References
Diatomics
16OH Hydroxyl 1.827 6488(11) 176.3413(2) Goldfarb et al. (2005)
16OD 1.825 53(4) 176.137(5) Schulz et al. (1982)
C2 Dicarbon 3.269(6) 315.4(6) Ervin & Lineberger (1991)
BO Boron oxide 2.508(8) 242.0(8) Wenthold et al. (1997)
NO Nitric oxide 0.026(5) 2.5(5) Travers, Cowles & Ellison (1989)
O2 Dioxygen 0.450(2) 43.42(20) Schiedt & Weinkauf (1995)
32SH Sulfhydryl 2.314 7283(17) 223.3373(2) Chaibi et al. (2006)
F2 Difluorine 3.08(10) 297(10) Janousek & Brauman (1979)
Cl2 Dichlorine 2.35(8) 227(8) Janousek & Brauman (1979)
Br2 Dibromine 2.53(8) 244(8) Janousek & Brauman (1979)
I2 Diiodine 2.524(5) 243.5(5) Zanni et al. (1997)
IBr Iodine bromide 2.512(3) 242.4(4) Sheps, Miller & Lineberger (2009)
LiCl Lithium chloride 0.593(10) 57.2(10) Miller et al. (1986)
FeO Iron(II) oxide 1.4950(5) 144.25(6) Kim, Weichman & Neumark (2015)
CN Cyano radical 3.862(4) [73]
Triatomics
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide 2.273(5) 219.3(5) Ervin, Ho & Lineberger (1988)
O3 Ozone 2.1028(25) 202.89(25) Novick et al. (1979)
SO2 Sulfur dioxide 1.107(8) 106.8(8) Nimlos & Ellison (1986)
Larger polyatomics
CH2CHO Vinyloxy 1.8248(+2-6) 176.07(+3-7) Rienstra-Kiracofe et al. (2002) after Mead et al. (1984)
C6H6 Benzene −0.70(14) −68(14) Ruoff et al. (1995)
C6H4O2 p-Benzoquinone 1.860(5) 179.5(6) Schiedt & Weinkauf (1999)
BF3 Boron trifluoride 2.65(10) 256(10) Page & Goode (1969)
HNO3 Nitric acid 0.57(15) 55(14) Janousek & Brauman (1979)
CH3NO2 Nitromethane 0.172(6) 16.6(6) Adams et al. (2009)
POCl3 Phosphoryl chloride 1.41(20) 136(20) Mathur et al. (1976)
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride 1.03(5) 99.4(49) Troe, Miller & Viggiano (2012)
C2(CN)4 Tetracyanoethylene 3.17(20) 306(20) Chowdhury & Kebarle (1986)
WF6 Tungsten hexafluoride 3.5(1) 338(10) George & Beauchamp (1979)
UF6 Uranium hexafluoride 5.06(20) 488(20) NIST chemistry webbook after Borshchevskii et al. (1988)
C60 Buckminsterfullerene 2.6835(6) 258.92(6) Huang et al. (2014)

Second and third electron affinity

Z Element Name Electron affinity (eV) Electron affinity (kJ/mol) References
7 N− Nitrogen −6.98 −673 [74]
7 N2− Nitrogen −11.09 −1070 [74]
8 O− Oxygen −7.71 −744 [74]
15 P− Phosphorus −4.85 −468 [74]
15 P2− Phosphorus −9.18 −886 [74]

Bibliography

Specific molecules

References

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  17. ↑ Carette, T.; Drag, C.; Scharf, O.; Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Fischer, C. (2000). "F. & Godefroid M. (2010). Isotope shift in the sulfur electron affinity: Observation and theory". Phys. Rev. A 81: 042522. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.042522. 
  18. ↑ Berzinsh, U.; Gustafsson, M.; Hanstorp, D.; Klinkmüller, A.; Ljungblad, U.; Martensson-Pendrill, A.M. (1995). "Isotope shift in the electron affinity of chlorine". Phys. Rev. A 51 (1): 231–238. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.51.231. PMID 9911578. Bibcode: 1995PhRvA..51..231B. 
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  20. ↑ Petrunin, V.V.; Andersen, H.H.; Balling, P.; Andersen, T. (1996). "Structural Properties of the Negative Calcium Ion: Binding Energies and Fine-structure Splitting". Phys. Rev. Lett. 76 (5): 744–47. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.76.744. PMID 10061539. Bibcode: 1996PhRvL..76..744P. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 Ning, Chuangang; Lu, Yuzhu (2022). "Electron Affinities of Atoms and Structures of Atomic Negative Ions". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 51 (2): 021502. doi:10.1063/5.0080243. Bibcode: 2022JPCRD..51b1502N. 
  22. ↑ Tang, R.; Fu, X.; Ning, C. (2018). "Accurate electron affinity of Ti and fine structures of its anions". J. Chem. Phys. 149 (13): 134304. doi:10.1063/1.5049629. PMID 30292212. Bibcode: 2018JChPh.149m4304T. 
  23. ↑ Fu, X.; Luo, Z.; Chen, X.; Li, J.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate electron affinity of V and fine-structure splittings of V− via slow-electron velocity-map imaging". J. Chem. Phys. 145 (16): 164307. doi:10.1063/1.4965928. PMID 27802620. Bibcode: 2016JChPh.145p4307F. 
  24. ↑ Chen, X.; Luo, Z.; Li, J.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate Electron Affinity of Iron and Fine Structures of Negative Iron ions". Sci. Rep. 6: 24996. doi:10.1038/srep24996. PMID 27138292. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...624996C. 
  25. ↑ Chen, X.; Ning, C. (2016). "Accurate electron affinity of Co and fine-structure splittings of Co− via slow-electron velocity-map imaging". Phys. Rev. A 93 (5): 052508. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.052508. Bibcode: 2016PhRvA..93e2508C. 
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  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Bilodeau, R.C.; Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Infrared Laser Photodetachment of Transition Metal Negative Ions: Studies on Cr−, Mo−, Cu−, and Ag−". Journal of Physics B 31: 3885–91. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/31/17/013. 
  28. ↑ Tang, R.; Fu, X.; Lu, Y.; Ning, C. (2020). "Accurate electron affinity of Ga and fine structures of its anions". J. Chem. Phys. 152 (11): 114303. doi:10.1063/1.5144962. PMID 32199425. Bibcode: 2020JChPh.152k4303T. 
  29. ↑ Bresteau, D.; Babilotte, Ph.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2015). "Intra-cavity photodetachment microscopy and the electron affinity of germanium". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 48 (12): 125001. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/48/12/125001. Bibcode: 2015JPhB...48l5001B. 
  30. ↑ Walter, C. W.; Gibson, N. D.; Field, R. L.; Snedden, A. P.; Shapiro, J. Z.; Janczak, C. M.; Hanstorp, D. (2009). "Electron affinity of arsenic and the fine structure of As− measured using infrared photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A 80 (1): 014501. doi:10.1103/physreva.80.014501. Bibcode: 2009PhRvA..80a4501W. 
  31. ↑ Vandevraye, M.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2012). "Electron affinity of selenium measured by photodetachment microscopy". Phys. Rev. A 85 (1): 015401. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.85.015401. Bibcode: 2012PhRvA..85a5401V. 
  32. ↑ Frey, P.; Breyer, F.; Hotop, H. (1978). "High Resolution Photodetachment from the Rubidium Negative Ion around the Rb(5p1/2) Threshold. Journal of Physics BJ. Phys. B: At. Mol. Phys". Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics 11: L589–94. doi:10.1088/0022-3700/11/19/005. 
  33. ↑ Andersen, H.H.; Petrunin, V.V.; Kristensen, P.; Andersen, T. (1997). "Structural properties of the negative strontium ion: Binding energy and fine-structure splitting". Phys. Rev. A 55 (4): 3247–49. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.55.3247. Bibcode: 1997PhRvA..55.3247A. 
  34. ↑ Fu, X.; Li, J.; Luo, Z.; Chen, X.; Ning, C. (2017). "Precision measurement of electron affinity of Zr and fine structures of its negative ions. Journal of Chemical Physics J. Chem. Phys". The Journal of Chemical Physics 147 (6): 064306. doi:10.1063/1.4986547. PMID 28810756. 
  35. ↑ Luo Z., Chen X., Li J. & Ning C. (2016). Precision measurement of the electron affinity of niobium. Phys. Rev. A 93, 020501(R) doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.020501
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 92nd Edn. (2011–2012); W. M. Haynes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. "Section 10, Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics; Electron Affinities".
  37. ↑ Walter, C.W.; Gibson, N.D.; Carman, D.J.; Li, Y.-G.; Matyas, D.J. (2010). "Electron affinity of indium and the fine structure of In− measured using infrared photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A 82 (3): 032507. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.82.032507. Bibcode: 2010PhRvA..82c2507W. 
  38. ↑ Vandevraye, M.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2013). "Electron affinity of tin measured by photodetachment microscopy". Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics 46 (12): 125002. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/46/12/125002. Bibcode: 2013JPhB...46l5002V. 
  39. ↑ Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K.; Beck, D.R. (1997). "Single- and Multiphoton Infrared Laser Spectroscopy of Sb−: A Case Study". Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (21): 4104–7. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.79.4104. Bibcode: 1997PhRvL..79.4104S. 
  40. ↑ Haeffler, G.; Klinkmüller, A.E.; Rangell, J.; Berzinsh, U.; Hanstorp, D. (1996). "The electron affinity of tellurium". Z. Phys. D 38 (3): 211. doi:10.1007/s004600050085. Bibcode: 1996ZPhyD..38..211H. 
  41. ↑ Peláez, R.J.; Blondel, C.; Delsart, C.; Drag, C. (2009). "Pulsed photodetachment microscopy and the electron affinity of iodine". J. Phys. B 42 (12): 125001. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/42/12/125001. Bibcode: 2009JPhB...42l5001P. 
  42. ↑ Rothe, S.; Sundberg, J.; Welander, J.; Chrysalidis, K.; Goodacre, T. (2017). "D., Fedosseev V., ... & Kron T. (2017). Laser photodetachment of radioactive 128I−.". J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 44: 104003. doi:10.1088/1361-6471/aa80aa. 
  43. ↑ Scheer, M.; Thøgersen, J.; Bilodeau, R.C.; Brodie, C.A.; Haugen, H.K. (1998). "Experimental Evidence that the 6s6p 3PJ States of Cs− are Shape Resonances". Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (4): 684–87. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.684. Bibcode: 1998PhRvL..80..684S. 
  44. ↑ Petrunin, V.V.; Volstad, J.D.; Balling, P.; Kristensen, K.; Andersen, T. (1995). "Resonant Ionization Spectroscopy of Ba−: Metastable and Stable Ions". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (10): 1911–14. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1911. PMID 10059160. Bibcode: 1995PhRvL..75.1911P. 
  45. ↑ Blondel, C. (2020). "Comment on "Measurement of the electron affinity of the lanthanum atom"". Phys. Rev. A 101 (1): 016501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.016501. Bibcode: 2020PhRvA.101a6501B. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02928751/file/AKK1015_rev.pdf. 
  46. ↑ Fu, X.-X.; Tang, R.-L.; Lu, Y.-Z.; Ning, C.-G. (2020). "Accurate electron affinity of atomic cerium and excited states of its anion". Chin. Phys. B 29 (7): 073201. doi:10.1088/1674-1056/ab90e9. Bibcode: 2020ChPhB..29g3201F. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Fu, X.; Lu, Y.; Tang, R.; Ning, C. (2020). "Electron affinity measurements of lanthanide atoms: Pr, Nd, and Tb". Phys. Rev. A 101 (2): 022502. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.022502. Bibcode: 2020PhRvA.101b2502F. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Felfli, Z.; Msezane, A.; Sokolovski, D. (2009). "Resonances in low-energy electron elastic cross sections for lanthanide atoms". Phys. Rev. A 79 (1): 012714. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.79.012714. Bibcode: 2009PhRvA..79a2714F. 
  49. ↑ Cheng, S.B.; Castleman, A. W. Jr (2015). "Direct experimental observation of weakly-bound character of the attached electron in europium anion". Sci. Rep. 5: 12414. doi:10.1038/srep12414. PMID 26198741. Bibcode: 2015NatSR...512414C. 
  50. ↑ Nadeau, M. J.; Garwan, M. A.; Zhao, X. L.; Litherland, A. E. (1997). "A negative ion survey; towards the completion of the periodic table of the negative ions". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 123 (1–4): 521–526. doi:10.1016/S0168-583X(96)00749-5. Bibcode: 1997NIMPB.123..521N. 
  51. ↑ Davis, V.T.; Thompson, J.S. (2001). "Measurement of the electron affinity of thulium". Phys. Rev. A 65 (1): 010501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.65.010501. Bibcode: 2001PhRvA..65a0501D. https://zenodo.org/record/1233713. 
  52. ↑ Fu, X.X.; Tang, R.L.; Lu, Y.Z.; Ning, C.G. (2019). "Measurement of electron affinity of atomic lutetium via the cryo-SEVI Method". Chinese Journal of Chemical Physics 32 (2): 187. doi:10.1063/1674-0068/cjcp1812293. Bibcode: 2019ChJCP..32..187F. 
  53. ↑ Tang R., Chen X., Fu X., Wang H. and Ning C. (2018). Electron affinity of the hafnium atom. Phys. Rev. A 98 020501(R) doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.98.020501.
  54. ↑ Lindahl, A.O. (2010). "The electron affinity of tungsten". Eur. Phys. J. D 60 (2): 219. doi:10.1140/epjd/e2010-00199-y. Bibcode: 2010EPJD...60..219L. 
  55. ↑ Chen, X.L.; Ning, C.G. (2017). "Observation of Rhenium Anion and Electron Affinity of Re.". J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 8 (12): 2735–2738. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01079. PMID 28581753. 
  56. ↑ Lu Y., Zhao J., Tang R., Fu X. & Ning C. (2020). "Measurement of electron affinity of iridium atom and photoelectron angular distributions of iridium anion". J. Chem. Phys. 152, 034302 doi:10.1063/1.5134535
  57. ↑ Bilodeau, R.C.; Scheer, M.; Haugen, H.K.; Brooks, R.L. (1999). "Near-threshold Laser Spectroscopy of Iridium and Platinum Negative Ions: Electron Affinities and the Threshold Law". Phys. Rev. A 61 (1): 012505. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.61.012505. Bibcode: 1999PhRvA..61a2505B. 
  58. ↑ Andersen, T.; Haugen, H.K.; Hotop, H. (1999). "Binding Energies in Atomic Negative Ions: III". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 28 (6): 1511. doi:10.1063/1.556047. Bibcode: 1999JPCRD..28.1511A. 
  59. ↑ Walter, C.W.; Gibson, N.D.; Spielman, S.E. (2020). "Electron affinity of thallium measured with threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A 101 (5): 052511. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.101.052511. Bibcode: 2020PhRvA.101e2511W. 
  60. ↑ Bresteau, D.; Drag, C.; Blondel, C. (2019). "Electron affinity of lead". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 52 (6): 065001. doi:10.1088/1361-6455/aaf685. Bibcode: 2019JPhB...52f5001B. 
  61. ↑ Bilodeau, R.C.; Haugen, H.K. (2001). "Electron affinity of Bi using infrared laser photodetachment threshold spectroscopy". Phys. Rev. A 64 (2): 024501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.64.024501. Bibcode: 2001PhRvA..64b4501B. 
  62. ↑ Junqin, Li; Zilong, Zhao; Martin, Andersson; Xuemei, Zhang; Chongyang, Chen (2012). "Theoretical study for the electron affinities of negative ions with the MCDHF method". J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys. 45 (16): 165004. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/45/16/165004. Bibcode: 2012JPhB...45p5004L. 
  63. ↑ Leimbach, D. (2020). "The electron affinity of astatine". Nat. Commun. 11 (1): 3824. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17599-2. PMID 32733029. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11.3824L. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Landau, A.; Eliav, E.; Ishikawa, Y.; Kaldor, U. (2001). "Benchmark calculations of electron affinities of the alkali atoms sodium to eka-francium (element 119)". J. Chem. Phys. 115 (6): 2389. doi:10.1063/1.1386413. Bibcode: 2001JChPh.115.2389L. 
  65. ↑ Andersen, T. (2004). "Atomic negative ions: Structure, dynamics and collisions". Physics Reports 394 (4–5): 157–313. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.01.001. Bibcode: 2004PhR...394..157A. 
  66. ↑ Tang R., Si R., Fei Z., Fu X., Lu Y., Brage T., Liu H., Chen C. & Ning C. (2019). "Candidate for Laser Cooling of a Negative Ion: High-Resolution Photoelectron Imaging of Th−". Phys. Rev. Lett. 123, 203002 doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.203002
  67. ↑ 67.00 67.01 67.02 67.03 67.04 67.05 67.06 67.07 67.08 67.09 67.10 67.11 Guo, Y.; Whitehead, M.A. (1989). "Electron affinities of alkaline-earth element calculated with the local-spin-density-functional theory.". Physical Review A 40 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.40.28. PMID 9901864. 
  68. ↑ Tang R., Lu Y., Liu H. & Ning C. (2021). "Electron affinity of uranium and bound states of opposite parity in its anion". Phys. Rev. A 103, L050801 doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.103.L050801
  69. ↑ Eliav, Ephraim; Fritzsche, Stephan; Kaldor, Uzi (2015). "Electronic structure theory of the superheavy elements". Nucl. Phys. A 944: 518–550. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2015.06.017. Bibcode: 2015NuPhA.944..518E. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Borschevsky, Anastasia; Pershina, Valeria; Kaldor, Uzi; Eliav, Ephraim. "Fully relativistic ab initio studies of superheavy elements". Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. http://www.kernchemie.uni-mainz.de/downloads/che_7/presentations/borschevsky.pdf. 
  71. ↑ Guo, Yangyang; Pašteka, Lukáš F.; Eliav, Ephraim; Borschevsky, Anastasia (2021). "Chapter 5: Ionization potentials and electron affinity of oganesson with relativistic coupled cluster method". in Musiał, Monika; Hoggan, Philip E.. Advances in Quantum Chemistry. 83. pp. 107–123. ISBN 978-0-12-823546-1. 
  72. ↑ Borschevsky, A.; Pershina, V.; Eliav, E.; Kaldor, U. (2013). "Ab initio predictions of atomic properties of element 120 and its lighter group-2 homologues". Phys. Rev. A 87 (2): 022502–1–8. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.87.022502. Bibcode: 2013PhRvA..87b2502B. 
  73. ↑ Bradforth, Stephen E.; Kim, Eun Ha; Arnold, Don W.; Neumark, Daniel M. (1993-01-15). "Photoelectron spectroscopy of CN−, NCO−, and NCS−". The Journal of Chemical Physics (AIP Publishing) 98 (2): 800–810. doi:10.1063/1.464244. ISSN 0021-9606. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 Rayner-Canham Appendix 5: Data summarised from J. E. Huheey et al., Inorganic Chemistry, 4th ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1993) [1]
  75. ↑ According to NIST as concerns Boron trifluoride, the Magnetron method, lacking mass analysis, is not considered reliable.

See also



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