Astronomy:Makemake

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Makemake Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination (mostly astrological)
Low-resolution image of Makemake and its unnamed moon S/2015 (136472) 1 by the Hubble Space Telescope, April 2015
Discovery[1]
Discovered by
Discovery sitePalomar Observatory
Discovery dateMarch 31, 2005
Designations
(136472) Makemake
PronunciationUK: /ˌmækiˈmæki/, US: /ˌmɑːkiˈmɑːki/ or /ˌmɑːkeɪˈmɑːkeɪ/ (About this soundlisten)[lower-alpha 2]
Named afterMakemake
2005 FY9
"Easterbunny" (nickname)[2]
K05331A[3]
Minor planet category
AdjectivesMakemakean[8]
Orbital characteristics[11]
Epoch November 21, 2025
(JD 2461000.5)
Uncertainty parameter 1[9][1]
Observation arc70.53 yr (25,760 d)[9][1]
Earliest precovery dateJanuary 29, 1955[9][1]
|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}52.796 astronomical unit|AU
|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}38.201 AU
45.499 AU
Eccentricity0.1604
Orbital period306.70 yr (112,022 d)
Mean anomaly170.497°
Mean motion0° 0m 11.569s / day
Inclination29.002°
Longitude of ascending node79.441°
|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}17 November 2186[10]
296.065°
Known satellites1 (S/2015 (136472) 1)
Physical characteristics
Dimensions(1434+48
−18) × (1420+18
−24 km)[12]
Mean radius715+19
−11 km[12]
Flattening0.0098[lower-alpha 3]
Surface area6.42×106 km2[lower-alpha 4][13]
Volume1.53×109 km3[lower-alpha 4][14]
Mass(2.69±0.20)×1021 kg[15]
Mean density1.67±0.17 g/cm3[15]
Equatorial surface gravity
0.35 m/s2[lower-alpha 5]
Equatorial escape velocity
0.71 km/s[lower-alpha 6][16]: 8 
Sidereal rotation period
Axial tilt
Geometric albedo
Physics30–40 K[19][16]
Apparent magnitude17.0 (opposition)[21][22]
Absolute magnitude (H)
Angular diameter38.28±0.22 milli-arcsec[23]: 568 


Makemake[lower-alpha 7] (minor-planet designation: 136472 Makemake) is a dwarf planet and the largest of what is known as the classical population of Kuiper belt objects,[lower-alpha 1] with a diameter of 1,430 kilometres (890 mi), or 60% that of Pluto.[28] It has one known satellite, which has not been named. Its extremely low average temperature, between 30 and 40 K (−240 and −230 °C), means its surface is covered with frozen methane, which eventually breaks down into heavier organic compounds including ethane, ethylene, and acetylene.[16] Makemake appears reddish-brown in color like Pluto,[lower-alpha 8] due to tholins on its surface. Makemake shows signs of geothermal activity and thus may be capable of supporting active geology and harboring an active subsurface ocean.[29]

Makemake was discovered in images taken on March 31, 2005, by a team led by Michael E. Brown, and announced on July 29, 2005. It was initially known as 2005 FY9 and later given the minor-planet number 136472. In July 2008, it was named after Makemake, a creator god in the Rapa Nui mythology of Easter Island, under the expectation by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) that it would prove to be a dwarf planet.[2][30][31][32]

No high-resolution images of Makemake's surface exist because it has not been visited up close by a space probe. Makemake is so far from Earth that it appears as a star-like point of light, even when viewed through a telescope. Nevertheless, scientists have expressed desire to send a space probe to explore Makemake because of its potential subsurface ocean and geological activity.[33]

History

Discovery

Makemake was discovered in images taken by the 1.22-meter Samuel Oschin telescope at Palomar Observatory (pictured)

Makemake was discovered in 2005 by a team of American astronomers consisting of Michael E. ("Mike") Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David Rabinowitz during their search for planets and other Solar System objects beyond the orbit of Neptune.[34]: 200  The team's search for trans-Neptunian objects, which begun in 2001,[34]: 187–188  involved routinely imaging the night sky using the QUEST camera[lower-alpha 9] attached to the 1.22-meter (48 in) Samuel Oschin telescope at Palomar Observatory in California, United States.[34]: 190  The discovery images of Makemake were taken by this telescope on March 31, 2005,[1][36] but it was not until April 3, 2005 that Mike Brown found the object in his inspection of the images.[37]: 132 

Several months before Makemake's discovery, Brown and his team had discovered the Pluto-sized dwarf planets Haumea and Eris and were in the process of planning further observations before announcing them to the public.[38][37]: 133  The team originally planned to delay the announcement of Makemake to sometime after Eris's planned announcement in October 2005.[34]: 202 [37]: 133–134  However, this plan was upended when a team led by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain announced their own discovery of Haumea on July 27, 2005. Brown realized that his team's observing logs containing the positions of Haumea, Eris, and Makemake were unintentionally public and had been accessed by a computer at Ortiz's institution, which led Brown to suspect that Ortiz's team had fraudulently made use of Brown's data to claim the discovery of Haumea.[37]: 154–155 [34]: 211  Fearing that his team's discoveries of Eris and Makemake will be scooped, Brown contacted Brian G. Marsden of the Minor Planet Center (MPC) to announce the two objects on July 29, 2005.[39][37]: 156  The MPC issued the discovery announcements for Eris and Makemake on its website at noon California time, followed by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams later that evening.[34]: 210 [40][36]

Name and symbol

This dwarf planet is named after Makemake, the creator of humanity and god of fertility in the myths of the Rapa Nui people native to Easter Island.[2] It has the minor planet catalog number of 136472, which was given by the MPC on September 7, 2005 after the object's orbit became well determined.[41][42] Before Makemake was named, it was known by its provisional designation 2005 FY9, which was given by the MPC when its discovery was announced.[40][2] Makemake was also previously known by its nickname "Easterbunny",[lower-alpha 10] given by Brown's team as a reference to the object's time of discovery shortly after Easter, and the codename "K05331A", which was automatically assigned by Brown's computer software when he discovered it.[34][3]

In his blog and memoir How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming, Brown recounted that deciding on Makemake's name was difficult because the object's known characteristics at the time were not relatable to mythology.[3][37]: 246 [43] Wanting to preserve the object's connection with Easter, Brown had thought about naming the object after either the Anglo-Saxon goddess Ēostre or the Anishinaabe trickster rabbit Manabozho, but found both names unusable.[lower-alpha 11] Brown and his team finally settled on the name Makemake, which satisfied both the object's connection with Easter and the International Astronomical Union's (IAU's) rule for naming classical Kuiper belt objects after creator deities.[44][45] The name of Makemake was approved and announced by the IAU on July 19, 2008.[2]

A symbol for Makemake ⟨🝼⟩ is included in Unicode as U+1F77C.[46] The use of planetary symbols in scientific publications is discouraged by the IAU,[47] so the symbol for Makemake is mostly used by astrologers.[48] However, the symbol has been used once in an infographic published by NASA in 2015.[49][48]: 4  The symbol for Makemake was designed by Denis Moskowitz and John T. Whelan; it represents a traditional petroglyph of Makemake's face, stylized to resemble the letter 'M'.[50] The commercial Solar Fire astrology software uses an alternative symbol (16px) for Makemake.[48]: 5 

Orbit and classification

Diagram showing Makemake's inclined orbit (gray) around the Sun, with the outer planets shown. The vertical gray lines along Makemake's orbital path mark its positions above and below the ecliptic plane.

As of April 2019, Makemake was 52.5 astronomical unit|AU (7.85 billion km) from the Sun,[21][22] almost as far from the Sun as it ever reaches on its orbit.[25] Makemake follows an orbit very similar to that of Haumea: highly inclined at 29° and a moderate eccentricity of about 0.16.[51] But still, Makemake's orbit is slightly farther from the Sun in terms of both the semi-major axis and perihelion. Its orbital period is 306 years,[9] more than Pluto's 248 years and Haumea's 283 years. Both Makemake and Haumea are currently far from the ecliptic (at an angular distance of almost 29°). Makemake will reach its aphelion in 2033,[22] whereas Haumea passed its aphelion in early 1992.[52]

Makemake is a classical Kuiper belt object (KBO),[53][lower-alpha 1] which means its orbit lies far enough from Neptune to remain stable over the age of the Solar System.[54][55] Unlike plutinos, which can cross Neptune's orbit due to their 2:3 resonance with the planet, the classical objects have perihelia further from the Sun, free from Neptune's perturbation.[54] Such objects have relatively low eccentricities (e below 0.2) and orbit the Sun in much the same way the planets do. Makemake, however, is a member of the "dynamically hot" class of classical KBOs, meaning that it has a high inclination compared to others in its population.[4] Makemake is, probably coincidentally, near the 13:7 resonance with Neptune.[56][original research?]

Size, shape, and mass

Comparison of sizes, albedos, and colors of various large trans-Neptunian objects with diameters greater than 700 km (430 mi). Makemake is shown on the top row, second from the right. The dark colored arcs represent uncertainties of the object's size.

Makemake is a nearly spherical object with an average diameter of 1,430 km (890 mi),[12]: 2  which is about 60% (​3⁄5) the diameter of Pluto[lower-alpha 12][28] or 11% (​1⁄9) the diameter of Earth.[58] In terms of diameter, Makemake is the fourth largest known dwarf planet and trans-Neptunian object in the Solar System, after Pluto, Eris, and Haumea.[59] Observations of a stellar occultation in 2011 showed that Makemake is slightly oblate or flattened at its poles, with a polar diameter of up to 1,420 km (880 mi)[lower-alpha 13] and an equatorial diameter of 1,434 km (891 mi).[12] This flattened spherical shape is known as a Maclaurin spheroid, which occurs when an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. the object's gravity is strong enough to compress its own rigid body into a sphere) and is deformed by its rotation.[12]: 2 [17]: 5 [19]: 12 

Makemake has a mass of around 2.69×1021 kg (with an uncertainty of ±0.20×1021 kg), which was determined from the orbital period and distance of its moon.[15]: 3  This makes Makemake the fourth most massive known dwarf planet and trans-Neptunian object in the Solar System, again after Eris, Pluto, and Haumea.[60] Compared to other Solar System objects, Makemake is about 3.7% the mass of Earth's Moon (or 0.045% Earth's mass)[lower-alpha 14] or around 20% Pluto's mass.[lower-alpha 15] Given Makemake's mass and average diameter, its average surface gravity is about 0.35 m/s2[lower-alpha 5] and its surface escape velocity is about 0.71 km/s.[lower-alpha 6][16]: 8 

Rotation

The rotation period of Makemake is uncertain, with measurements giving either 11.4 or 22.8 hours (0.48 or 0.95 d) as of 2025.[19]: 2, 7  These rotation period measurements were made by monitoring changes in Makemake's brightness over time, which is plotted as a light curve.[17][19]: 2  Makemake exhibits very little variation in brightness (0.03 magnitudes) presumably due to small albedo variations across its surface, which makes it difficult for telescopes to measure Makemake's light curve and rotation period.[17]: 1, 6  For example, studies prior to 2019 have suggested possible rotation periods of 7.77, 11.24, 11.5, or 22.48 hours.[17]: 1  For measurements as of 2025, it is unclear whether Makemake's brightness peaks once or twice during one rotation, so it is ambiguous whether the rotation periods of 11.4 hours or its double value 22.8 hours are correct.[19]: 2 

The axial tilt of Makemake has not been measured, although it can be reasonably assumed that its rotation axis is aligned with the orbital plane of its moon.[8]: 4 [62]: 16  In that case, Makemake would have a high axial tilt somewhere between 46° and 78° with respect to its orbit around the Sun (or 63°–87° with respect to the ecliptic), with its equator facing toward the Sun and Earth (near equinox) at the time its moon was discovered.[8]: 3–4  This high axial tilt together with Makemake's eccentric orbit can give rise to major seasonal changes in temperature and terrain, similar to those seen on Pluto.[8]: 4–5 [62]: 16  Makemake's moon was predicted to eclipse Makemake sometime during 2009–2013 or 2023–2027, so Makemake may have passed equinox during either of those year ranges if its rotation is aligned with its moon's orbit.[15]: 1 

Geology

Surface

The near-infrared spectrum of Makemake, as measured by the James Webb Space Telescope. The absorption signatures of methane (CH4) at 1–2 μm are very prominent in Makemake's spectrum, which indicates it is very abundant on Makemake's surface. Other chemical compounds detected on Makemake include ethane (C2H6), acetylene (C2H2), deuterated methane (CH3D), and possibly ethylene (C2H4).[16]: 2 
An artistic illustration of Makemake depicting its uniform, light brown surface and lack of a substantial atmosphere

Because of its great distance from the Sun, Makemake's surface has an extremely low temperature of 30 to 40 K (−243 to −233 °C; −406 to −388 °F)[19]: 5 [16]: 17 —cold enough that some volatile substances like methane can exist as solid ice.[63] Astronomical spectroscopy has shown that the surface of Makemake is dominated by frozen methane, with smaller amounts of long-chain hydrocarbons including ethane, ethylene, acetylene, and various high-mass alkanes like propane.[64][16]: 2  In visible light, the surface of Makemake appears very bright and reflective with a geometric albedo of 82% (more reflective than Pluto),[17]: 7 [18]: 5  suggesting that its methane is freshly deposited.[62]: 15 [65]: 3–4  Makemake's methane ice is highly absorbent in near-infrared, which indicates that it either exists in the form of unusually large, centimeter-sized pellets, or thick slabs of sintered particles.[58][66]: 3597 [65]: 16  Planetary scientists consider the second option more likely.[66]: 3597 [65]: 16  It is estimated that methane ice makes up roughly 80% of Makemake's surface composition, with the remaining 20% attributed to long-chain hydrocarbons.[64]: 2 

The long-chain hydrocarbons on Makemake's surface come from the irradiation of methane by ultraviolet sunlight and cosmic rays, which breaks down the methane and triggers photochemical reactions.[64]: 1 [16]: 2, 9  These photochemical reactions can cascade: transforming methane into ethane, into ethylene, into acetylene, and so on[66]: 3594–3595  until it leaves a dark, reddish mixture of complex hydrocarbons, called tholins.[25]: 285 [65]: 4  These tholins give Makemake a reddish-brownish color,[lower-alpha 8] similar to what has been seen on Pluto.[58][68] Makemake is less red than Pluto, but is somewhat redder than Eris;[18]: 5  the difference in color may be due to differing concentrations of tholins on these dwarf planets.[20]: 5475  Although tholins should darken the surface of Makemake, the dwarf planet remains bright because fresh methane ice covers up its tholins.[23]: 569 [62]: 15 [65]: 3–4 

Makemake shares its high abundance of methane ice with Pluto and Eris, but unlike those two, Makemake apparently lacks both carbon monoxide and nitrogen ices.[65]: 1–2  The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) could not find these two ices in Makemake's surface, indicating that it contains less than 3% nitrogen and less than 1 part per million of carbon monoxide.[65]: 13 [16]: 1  Without nitrogen and carbon monoxide to mix with, methane ice on Makemake remains pure and can grow to large thicknesses or grain sizes.[25]: 288 [65]: 16  Makemake's lack of nitrogen is expected, because nitrogen is highly volatile and its vapor can escape from Makemake's gravity more easily than from the stronger gravities of Pluto and Eris.[63]: 287 [62]: 16 [65]: 18  The reason for Makemake's apparent lack of carbon monoxide is less clear: it could have been removed via either atmospheric escape or hydrothermally-driven geochemical reactions inside Makemake, or Makemake could have somehow formed with low amounts of carbon monoxide.[65]: 19 [71]: 10 [72]: 5  Water and carbon dioxide ices are also apparently absent in Makemake's surface, even though they are common refractory (non-volatile) materials in Kuiper belt objects; this may be because on Makemake, these ices are completely covered by volatile material like methane and its irradiation products.[66]: 3598 [71]: 13 

Makemake appears to have a uniform surface with very small longitudinal variations in albedo, color, and composition,[73][66][17]: 1, 6  in contrast to the highly mottled terrain of Pluto.[62]: 16  It is unknown whether Makemake shows latitudinal surface variations, as detecting these would require continuous observations of Makemake changing its aspect angle[lower-alpha 16] as it orbits the Sun (in other words, change seasons), which takes many years.[17]: 6–7 [19]: 8  Makemake showed no change in its absolute magnitude and light curve from 2006 to 2017, during which Makemake's aspect angle changed by about 11°.[17]: 7  If Makemake has latitudinal surface variations, they would likely resemble bands running longitudinally across Makemake's surface.[62]: 16  Planetary scientists William M. Grundy, Alex H. Parker, and colleagues have hypothesized that Makemake's abundant volatile methane may lead to similar geography and geology as Pluto.[62]: 16 [65]: 4  If Makemake has seasonal volatile transport processes like Pluto, it could potentially produce a longitudinally uniform band of dark material, akin to Pluto's Belton Regio.[62]: 16  Alternatively, if Makemake has a non-global atmosphere that froze onto its surface, its equator could be bright and frost-covered, whereas its poles could be darker.[62]: 16  Seasonal sublimation and deposition of methane could potentially produce bladed terrain or even thick, convecting glaciers resembling Pluto's Sputnik Planitia.[65]: 4  Makemake is not expected to have mountains taller than 10 km (6.2 mi).[17]: 6 

Interior and possible geological activity

Makemake has a bulk density of about 1.67 g/cm3 (with an uncertainty of ±0.17 g/cm3),[15]: 3  similar to the trans-Neptunian dwarf planets Pluto, Gonggong, and Quaoar.[60]: 7  Like for these dwarf planets, this density suggests that Makemake has an interior mostly made of water ice and rock.[60]: 7 [33]: 10  Makemake is large enough that its interior is likely differentiated, having a rocky core surrounded by layers of ice.[74]: 230 [75][33]: 8  Planetary scientists suspect that Makemake's interior contains enough radionuclides and primordial heat to sustain a subsurface liquid water ocean, in the past or potentially even today.[33][76] A high amount of heat inside Makemake could give rise to geological phenomena such as cryovolcanism.[77][19]: 4 

Spectroscopy by the JWST has detected heavy isotopologues of methane containing deuterium (D or 2H) and carbon-13 (13C) in Makemake's surface, for which astronomers have determined a deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratio of (2.9±0.6)×10−4 and a 13C/12C ratio of 0.010±0.003.[65] While Makemake's 13C/12C ratio matches those of other Solar System objects, Makemake's D/H ratio is different: it is much lower than the D/H ratios of methane in comets, but is similar to the D/H ratios of water in comets.[65][78] Planetary scientists have interpreted Makemake's low D/H ratio as evidence for Makemake having a warm interior with active hydrothermal geochemistry: Makemake's deuterium-poor methane may have inherited its hydrogen from geochemical reactions in subsurface water, which require high temperatures of 150 °C (302 °F) that could only be sustained by heat from Makemake's putative core.[78][33] In this scenario, Makemake's subsurface water may either exist in the form of liquid water or convecting solid ice, and internally-produced methane may have been transported to Makemake's surface via outgassing or cryovolcanic eruptions.[33] However, it is still possible that Makemake's deuterium-poor methane may be primordial (originating directly from the protosolar nebula via accretion), so internal geochemical activity may not be necessary to explain its existence.[72]

Makemake emits an unusually high amount of mid-infrared radiation compared to far-infrared, which has received various interpretations by astronomers since its first reported detection by the Spitzer Space Telescope in 2008.[19]: 1  Astronomers initially thought that Makemake's excess mid-infrared emission came from patches of dark, warm terrain mixed with bright, cold terrain (and also from its moon after it was discovered), but this hypothesis could not accurately describe Makemake's infrared emission at different wavelengths,[19]: 1–2  nor could it explain Makemake's minimal brightness variability.[79] In 2025, Csaba Kiss and collaborators proposed that Makemake's excess mid-infrared emission could instead be caused by either a cryovolcanic hotspot reaching temperatures of about 150 K (−123 °C; −190 °F), or an orbiting ring consisting of tiny carbonaceous dust grains.[19]: 1–2 [76] The cryovolcanic hotspot scenario is favored because the aforementioned dust ring would quickly destabilize due to solar radiation pressure, although the ring could potentially be replenished if cryovolcanic eruptions could eject carbonaceous dust into orbit around Makemake.[19]: 6  The proposed cryovolcanic hotspot may be emitting a similar amount of heat energy as the south pole geysers of Saturn's moon Enceladus, and it could potentially erupt cryolava containing ammonia and various salts dissolved in liquid water.[19]: 4 [76] The location of this cryovolcanic hotspot on Makemake's surface is unknown, though it is estimated to cover an area of about 350 km2 (140 sq mi; equivalent to a ~10 km or 6.2 mi-radius circle).[19]: 3–4 

Atmosphere or outgassing

JWST detection of gaseous methane (CH4) fluorescence in Makemake's near-infrared spectrum (left panel, labeled a). Either an outgassing methane coma (b) or a thin methane atmosphere (c) can explain the observed fluorescence.

Analysis of JWST spectroscopy in 2025 has revealed the presence of gaseous methane on Makemake, which fluoresces in near-infrared due to sunlight absorption.[80][16] Makemake is the second trans-Neptunian object confirmed to have gas, after Pluto.[16][80] However, it is uncertain whether Makemake's methane gas is contained in a gravitationally bound atmosphere, or is temporarily outgassing (if not escaping) from its surface via methane ice sublimation or cryovolcanic plumes.[16]: 1 [80] Makemake is barely massive and cold enough to theoretically hold onto an atmosphere of methane or nitrogen; JWST observations have shown that Makemake does not appear to have nitrogen gas, which indicates most of it had already been lost to atmospheric escape.[16]: 17 

If Makemake's detected methane gas is entirely contained in a gravitationally bound atmosphere, then the surface atmospheric pressure would be roughly 10 picobars (1 micropascal), which is 100 billion times less than Earth's atmospheric pressure and 1 million times less than Pluto's.[80] Such an extremely thin atmosphere was not detected in observations of Makemake's 2011 stellar occultation, which supports the occultation finding that Makemake lacks a substantial global atmosphere greater than 4–12 nanobars (0.4–1.2 millipascals).[16]: 9 [23][66] The temperature of this putative thin atmosphere would be about 40 K (−233.2 °C; −387.7 °F), which is slightly above the sublimation temperature of methane at this atmosphere's surface pressure. This raises the possibility that Makemake's putative atmosphere may be sustained by the sublimation of surface methane ice.[80][16]: 9  As Makemake follows an eccentric orbit, its putative atmosphere may change with distance from the Sun: for example, in the warmer temperatures of perihelion, Makemake may sublimate more methane but may lose some to atmospheric escape.[63]: L62 

Alternatively, if the methane gas detected by JWST is coming from outgassing only, then it would suggest that Makemake is releasing roughly 266 kg (586 lb) of methane per second from 4–30% of its entire surface area.[16]: 9  It is unknown if the methane is being outgassed at speeds fast enough to escape Makemake's gravity. If methane gas is escaping, it would form a comet-like gas coma surrounding Makemake.[16]: 8  The estimated mass loss rate would be comparable to that of Enceladus's water plumes (300 kg/s or 660 lb/s) and the limited surface area of methane emission could be potentially related to Makemake's proposed cryovolcanic hotspot.[16]: 9  Cryovolcanic outgassing of methane has been hypothesized to be ubiquitous among large trans-Neptunian dwarf planets like Makemake.[81]: 5 

Satellites and potential rings

S/2015 (136472) 1

Discovery images of Makemake's moon by the Hubble Space Telescope from April 2015. The moon was visible on April 27, but had moved and become hidden by April 29.
Animated time lapse of S/2015 (136472) 1 orbiting Makemake, as seen by Hubble during 2018–2019. Makemake appears smudged because its glare has been digitally removed to make the moon more visible.

Makemake has only one known natural satellite or moon, which is unnamed with the provisional designation S/2015 (136472) 1 and unofficial nickname "MK2".[8][75] It was discovered by astronomers Alex H. Parker, Marc W. Buie, William M. Grundy, and Keith S. Noll in Hubble Space Telescope images taken on April 27, 2015, and was announced on April 26, 2016.[82] S/2015 (136472) 1 is about 1,300 times (7.8 magnitudes) fainter than Makemake in visible light and is suspected to have a very dark surface with a diameter of 175 km (109 mi) in order to explain some of Makemake's excess mid-infrared radiation.[79][8]: 3–4  The moon follows a likely circular orbit around Makemake with an orbital period of 18 days and a semi-major axis of 22,250 ± 780 km (13,830 ± 480 mi).[15]

When S/2015 (136472) 1 was discovered, its orbit was oriented nearly edge-on from the point of view of Earth-based observatories, which meant that the moon appeared to pass in front of or behind Makemake.[8]: 2 [15]: 3  Although this edge-on configuration made it difficult for telescopes to image S/2015 (136472) 1,[79] it may have allowed the moon to eclipse and occult Makemake.[8]: 4 [75] It is predicted that the moon may have eclipsed Makemake during 2009–2013, or may be still eclipsing Makemake during 2023–2027.[15]: 1  No eclipses by S/2015 (136472) 1 have been reported as of 2025.[15]

Makemake system
Name Diameter
(km) 		Semi-major axis
(km) 		Discovery date
Makemake 1430+38
−22 		March 31, 2005
S/2015 (136472) 1 ≈ 175 22250±780 April 27, 2015

Possibility of other satellites

Imaging observations by the Hubble Space Telescope indicate Makemake does not have additional moons brighter than apparent magnitude 26.9 (~10 magnitudes fainter than Makemake)[lower-alpha 17] at distances beyond 30,000 km (19,000 mi).[83]: 8  Larger moons could be hidden if they orbited very close to Makemake.[17]: 6  The possibility of Makemake having an additional dark moon larger than S/2015 (136472) 1 has been discussed by astronomers as a potential solution for Makemake's excess mid-infrared emission and apparently slow rotation,[17]: 6  but it was disfavored because it required an unrealistically large moon size.[19]: 3 

Possibility of rings

Makemake is not known to have rings. Rings around distant objects are too small and faint to be directly imaged by telescopes, so they would ideally be detected in observations of stellar occultations.[84]: 27  However, rings were not detected in Makemake's stellar occultation from 2011. If rings do exist around Makemake, they would likely orbit around its equator in an edge-on configuration like S/2015 (136472) 1, which could have made them missable to astronomers during the 2011 occultation.[19]: 5  The possibility of a ring around Makemake has been explored as a potential solution to Makemake's excess mid-infrared emission, but it was deemed unlikely because the hypothesis would require the ring to be made of extremely small (~100 nm) dust particles, which would make it vulnerable to destruction by solar radiation pressure within a decade.[19]: 6, 15  Nevertheless, it might be possible for Makemake to sustain such a ring if it has shepherd moons, a continuous production of dust from colliding particles and small moons, or cryovolcanic eruptions ejecting dust into orbit.[19]: 6 

Origin

Like other dwarf planets in the Kuiper belt, Makemake is believed to have formed early in the Solar System's history,[58][85] within 10 million years after the formation of the Sun's protosolar nebula approximately 4.57 billion years ago.[74]: 214 [86]: 176  Makemake presumably begun as a planetesimal that grew to its present-day size by accreting surrounding material and other planetesimals until the protosolar nebula dissipated within a few million years.[74]: 214  The temperature of Makemake's formation environment must have been cold enough for volatiles such as methane to condense into solids and subsequently accrete into the dwarf planet,[65]: 3, 17 [72]: 3  although it is likely that Makemake lost some of its primordial methane during accretion, when it had a smaller mass and was experiencing warming by large impacts and its closer distance to the Sun.[33]: 9 

According to a 2020 hypothesis based on Solar System formation models (an update of the Nice model from 2005 that first proposed a similar scenario), a few tens of millions of years after the protosolar nebula's formation, gravitational interactions among the giant planets caused Neptune to abruptly migrate outward into a massive circumstellar disk between 15 and 30 AU from the Sun, gravitationally scattering many of the objects within it.[87][86]: 176  The model indicates that nearly all Kuiper belt objects including Makemake originally formed closer to the Sun than where they are now, in that circumstellar disk.[86]: 175–176  Makemake was among the objects scattered by Neptune and ended up on a highly inclined and eccentric orbit far from the Sun—located in what is now known as the "hot" classical Kuiper belt.[86]: 176 [lower-alpha 18] The existence of Makemake's moon S/2015 (136472) 1 suggests that the dwarf planet may have experienced a massive collision with another body sometime in its history, as has been hypothesized for other dwarf planets with moons.[75]

Observation and exploration

Observation

Sloan Digital Sky Survey precovery image of Makemake (circled) above the large galaxy NGC 4274 on December 13, 2004

In terms of visual absolute magnitude, Makemake is the third intrinsically brightest known trans-Neptunian object, after Eris and Pluto.[88] Makemake owes its high intrinsic brightness to its large size and highly reflective surface.[lower-alpha 19] In terms of visual apparent magnitude, on the other hand, Makemake is the second brightest trans-Neptunian object in the sky after Pluto, owing to its closer distance to the Sun than Eris.[90][69] Makemake reaches a peak brightness of about apparent magnitude 17 when it comes to opposition during March to April,[91][92] which is bright enough to be visible using a high-end amateur telescope.[2] Because Makemake is very far from Earth, it appears very small with an angular diameter of about 38 milliarcseconds,[23]: 568  so telescopes cannot resolve it beyond a star-like point of light.[91] In the sky, Makemake is located in the northern constellation Coma Berenices and has been there since its discovery.[92] In late 2028, Makemake will move to the constellation Boötes.[92]

Various sky surveys have serendipitously detected Makemake up to several years before its discovery—these are known as precovery observations. These include the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking program at Palomar and Haleakala Observatory during 1999–2003, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) at Apache Point Observatory in 2004, the KLENOT project at Kleť Observatory in 2003,[93][94] and four photographic plates from Palomar Observatory's Digitized Sky Survey from 1955 to 1998.[1] The Palomar Observatory's photographic plate from January 29, 1955 is the earliest known precovery observation of Makemake, predating its discovery by just over 50 years (16% of Makemake's orbital period).[1] The precoveries from Kleť Observatory were identified on July 29, 2005,[93] while the precoveries from Palomar and Haleakala Observatory were published by the Minor Planet Center on August 7, 2005.[95] The SDSS precoveries were published by the Minor Planet Center much later in April 2015.[96]

While moving across the sky, Makemake may pass in front of a background star and briefly block out its light from Earth's point of view, resulting in a stellar occultation.[97] Stellar occultations by Makemake can reveal details such as its shape and potential atmosphere, but are difficult to accurately predict because the dwarf planet's great distance from Earth makes it subject to large uncertainties in its position.[98][23]: 566  Stellar occultations by Makemake are rare because the dwarf planet is located in a region of the sky with relatively few stars.[97] As of 2025, only one stellar occultation by Makemake has been successfully predicted and detected by astronomers.[99]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".  The first and only observed stellar occultation by Makemake took place on April 23, 2011, which yielded 7 positive detections out of 16 participating telescopes located at sites scattered across South America.[97][23]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 

Exploration

Makemake (indicated with red bars) imaged by the New Horizons spacecraft on October 6, 2007

Makemake has not been visited up close by a space probe, although astronomers and planetary scientists have expressed desire to send one there.[33] Makemake has been recognized as an attractive exploration target because it potentially hosts a subsurface ocean with ongoing geological activity.[100][33]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".  The exploration of a trans-Neptunian object like Makemake would provide insights to the formation and evolution of the Solar System.[101][102]

A 2011 study by Ryan McGranaghan and colleagues calculated that a flyby mission to Makemake could take just over 16 years using a Jupiter gravity assist, based on a launch date of August 24, 2036. Makemake would be approximately Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives.[101]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".  A 2024 study by the University of Tennessee suggested that if a flyby mission to Makemake made use of a powered Jupiter gravity assist, it could reach Makemake within a shorter time duration of 9.6–16.4 years, depending on the spacecraft's payload mass.[102]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".  A powered Jupiter gravity assist would be most optimal for launch dates of August 22, 2036 and September 27, 2048.[102]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 

A 2019 study by Amanda Zangari and collaborators identified several possible flyby trajectories to Makemake for different gravity assists and excess launch energies. For launch dates in 2025–2027 or 2036–2039, a single Jupiter gravity could bring a spacecraft to Makemake in 12.8–23.6 or 11.6–19.2 years, respectively.[103]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., [922]  A single Saturn gravity assist may provide a faster route for lower-energy launches: for launch dates in 2032–2033 or 2036–2040, a spacecraft could reach Makemake in 19.2–22.5 or 12.8–19.1 years, respectively.[103]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., [923, 925]  For launch dates in 2037–2049, a spacecraft could reach Makemake in 16.8–17.3 years using gravity assists from both Jupiter and Saturn.[103]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., [923] 

Makemake was observed from afar by the New Horizons spacecraft in October 2007 and January 2017, from distances of 52 AU and 70 AU, respectively.[18]<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".  The spacecraft's outbound trajectory through the Kuiper belt permitted observations of Makemake at high phase angles that are otherwise unobtainable from Earth, enabling the determination of the light scattering properties and phase curve behavior of Makemake's surface.[18]

See also

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Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Astronomers Mike Brown, David Jewitt and Marc Buie classify Makemake as a near scattered object but the Minor Planet Center, from which Wikipedia draws most of its definitions for the trans-Neptunian population, places it among the main Kuiper belt population.[24][25][26][27]
  2. ↑ The Rapa Nui pronunciation is rap, which is anglicized as /ˈmækiˈmæki/ in the UK and /ˈmɑːkiˈmɑːki/[3] as well as /ˈmɑːkeɪˈmɑːkeɪ/ in the US.[5][6] The distinction between /ɑː/ and /æ/ reflect how the US and UK handle the Polynesian 'a' (parallel to the first 'a' in Italian 'pasta'); the /eɪ/ pronunciation attempts to approximate the Polynesian 'e', and is used by Brown and his students.[7]
  3. ↑ Calculated using (a−b)/a and the dimensions from Brown[12]
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Calculated using the dimensions from Brown[12] assuming an oblate spheroid.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 The surface gravity in meters per second squared (m/s2) is calculated according to GMr2, where G = 6.6743×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2[61] is the gravitational constant, M is Makemake's mass in kilograms, and r is Makemake's radius in meters.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The surface escape velocity in meters per second (m/s) is calculated according to vesc=2GMr, where G = 6.6743×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2[61] is the gravitational constant, M is Makemake's mass in kilograms, and r is Makemake's radius in meters.
  7. ↑ Pronounced as four syllables, with stress on the a's. Values of the vowels vary; see info-box.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 In planetary astronomy, the term "red" is used to describe objects that reflect more light at longer (redder) wavelengths.[67]: 145  Astronomers have described Makemake and Pluto as similarly "red",[68]: L38 [69]: 437  although it is known that Pluto appears more of a brown color (not literally red) to the human eye.[70]
  9. ↑ The Quasar Equatorial Survey Team (QUEST) camera was a 161-megapixel charge-coupled device (CCD) camera that had a large, ~8.3 square-degree field of view.[35] It was installed onto Palomar Observatory's Samuel Oschin telescope in 2003.[34]: 191 
  10. ↑ Science writer Govert Schilling reported that Brown initially joked about nicknaming Makemake "Dead Pope" as a reference to the then-immminent death of Pope John Paul II, but was dissuaded by his wife Diane and instead opted for the less controversial nickname "Easterbunny".[34]: 202 
  11. ↑ The name of Ēostre has already been used for the asteroid 343 Ostara, so it could not be used according to the IAU's rule against duplicate names. For the name of Manabozho, Brown personally found it unappealing because of its suffix -bozo.[44][3][37]: 246 
  12. ↑ Pluto has a radius of 1188 km, or a diameter of 2376 km.[57] Dividing Makemake's radius by Pluto's radius gives the fraction of Pluto's radius (0.602 RP), which can be converted to a percentage by multiplying by 100.
  13. ↑ The exact flattening and tilt of Makemake's poles with respect to Earth's line of sight is not known, so the apparent polar diameter of 1420+18
    −24     km     from the 2011 occultation only represents an upper limit to Makemake's true polar diameter. This is because in a stellar occultation, only the occulting object's shadow is seen.[12]
  14. ↑ Earth has a mass of 5.9722×1024 kg and its Moon has a mass of 7.346×1022 kg. Dividing Makemake's mass by these aforementioned mass values gives the fraction of Earth's mass (0.00045 M🜨) and Moon's mass (0.037 M☾), respectively. These decimal values converted to percentages by multiplying by 100.
  15. ↑ Pluto has a mass of 1.303×1022 kg[57] Dividing Makemake's mass by Pluto's mass gives the fraction of Pluto's mass (0.206 MP), which can be converted to a percentage by multiplying by 100.
  16. ↑ The aspect angle of a Solar System object is defined as the angle between the object's rotation axis and Earth's line of sight to the object.[104]
  17. ↑ The size of an object with a known brightness depends on its albedo. If a satellite 10 magnitudes fainter than Makemake has an albedo of 0.7, its diameter would be roughly 16 km (9.9 mi).[83]: 8  A smaller albedo would correspond to a larger diameter.
  18. ↑ "Hot" in this case does not indicate temperature (Makemake is very frigid), but the dynamics of its orbit, which is highly perturbed.
  19. ↑ The absolute magnitude (H) of a Solar System body is calculated according to the equation H=−5log10(Dp1329km), which is rearranged from the original absolute magnitude and albedo (p) to diameter (D) equation D=1329kmp×10−0.2H given by Harris & Harris (1997).[89]: 451  In the absolute magnitude equation, larger values for both diameter D and albedo p give a smaller (and thus brighter) value for H. Mike Brown alludes to this relationship in his webpage describing the discovery of Eris, where he mentions that a dwarf planet can appear bright if it is either large, highly reflective, or both.[90] Makemake is both large and highly reflective.[17]

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References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 "(136472) Makemake = 2005 FY9". Minor Planet Center. https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=136472. Retrieved 2025-10-21. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Brown, Mike (2008). "What's in a name? (part 2)". Mike Brown's Planets. http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/07/whats-in-name-part-2.html. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levison2003
  5. ↑ Brown, Mike (2008). "Make-make". Mike Brown's Planets. http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/07/make-make.html. 
  6. ↑ "Makemake". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Makemake. 
  7. ↑ Podcast Dwarf Planet Haumea (Darin Ragozzine, at 3′11″)
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 Parker, A. H.; Buie, M. W.; Grundy, W. M.; Noll, K. S. (2016-04-25). "Discovery of a Makemakean Moon". The Astrophysical Journal 825 (1): L9. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/825/1/L9. Bibcode: 2016ApJ...825L...9P. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 "JPL Small-Body Database Lookup: 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9)". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/tools/sbdb_lookup.html#/?sstr=Makemake. Retrieved 2025-10-21. 
  10. ↑ "Horizons Batch for 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9) on 2186-Nov-17". JPL Horizons. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%27Makemake%27&START_TIME=%272186-11-01%27&STOP_TIME=%272186-11-30%27&STEP_SIZE=%273%20hours%27&QUANTITIES=%2719%27. 
  11. ↑ "JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris for 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9) at epoch JD 2461000.5 (2025-Nov-21)". JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND='Makemake'&TABLE_TYPE='ELEMENTS'&START_TIME='JD2461000.5'&STOP_TIME='JD2461200.5'&STEP_SIZE='1y'&CENTER='@0'&OUT_UNITS='AU-D'. Retrieved 2025-10-18.  Solution using the Solar System Barycenter. Ephemeris Type: Elements and Center: @0)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Brown2013
  13. ↑ "surface ellipsoid 717x717x710 – Wolfram-Alpha". http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=surface+ellipsoid+717x717x710. 
  14. ↑ "volume ellipsoid 717x717x710 – Wolfram-Alpha". http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=volume+ellipsoid+717x717x710. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 Protopapa, SilviaExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (September 2025). "JWST Detection of Hydrocarbon Ices and Methane Gas on Makemake". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 991 (2): L34. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adfe63. Bibcode: 2025ApJ...991L..34P. 
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 T. A. Hromakina; I. N. Belskaya; Yu. N. Krugly; V. G. Shevchenko; J. L. Ortiz; P. Santos-Sanz; R. Duffard; N. Morales et al. (2019-04-09). "Long-term photometric monitoring of the dwarf planet (136472) Makemake". Astronomy & Astrophysics 625: A46. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935274. Bibcode: 2019A&A...625A..46H. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Verbiscer, Anne J.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (April 2022). "The Diverse Shapes of Dwarf Planet and Large KBO Phase Curves Observed from New Horizons". The Planetary Science Journal 3 (4): 95. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ac63a6. Bibcode: 2022PSJ.....3...95V. 
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 19.16 19.17 Kiss, CsabaExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (November 2024). "Prominent Mid-infrared Excess of the Dwarf Planet (136472) Makemake Discovered by JWST/MIRI Indicates Ongoing Activity". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 976 (1): L9. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad8dcb. Bibcode: 2024ApJ...976L...9K. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Alvarez-Candal, Alvaro; Souza-Feliciano, Ana Carolina; Martins-Filho, Walter; Pinilla-Alonso, Noemí; Ortiz, José Luis (October 2020). "The dwarf planet Makemake as seen by X-Shooter". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 497 (4): 5473–5479. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2329. Bibcode: 2020MNRAS.497.5473A. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "AstDys (136472) Makemake Ephemerides". Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. http://newton.spacedys.com/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.3.0&n=Makemake. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Asteroid 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9)". HORIZONS Web-Interface. JPL Solar System Dynamics. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons/app.html#/?spk=20136472. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 Ortiz, J. L.; Sicardy, B.; Braga-Ribas, F.; Alvarez-Candal, A.; Lellouch, E.; Duffard, R.; Pinilla-Alonso, N.; Ivanov, V. D. et al. (2012). "Albedo and atmospheric constraints of dwarf planet Makemake from a stellar occultation". Nature 491 (7425): 566–569. doi:10.1038/nature11597. PMID 23172214. Bibcode: 2012Natur.491..566O. http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/142198. Retrieved 2019-07-01. 
  24. ↑ Marc W. Buie (2008-04-05). "Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136472". SwRI (Space Science Department). http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/136472.html. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 M. E. Brown; K. M. Barksume; G. L. Blake; E. L. Schaller et al. (2007). "Methane and Ethane on the Bright Kuiper Belt Object 2005 FY9". The Astronomical Journal 133 (1): 284–289. doi:10.1086/509734. Bibcode: 2007AJ....133..284B. 
  26. ↑ Audrey Delsanti; David Jewitt. "The Solar System Beyond The Planets". University of Hawaii. http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/publications/preprints/06preprints/Delsanti_06-009.pdf. 
  27. ↑ "List Of Transneptunian Objects". Minor Planet Center. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/TNOs.html. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Koberlein, Brian (2025-02-18). "Even Eris and Makemake Could Have Geothermal Activity". Universe Today. https://www.universetoday.com/articles/even-eris-and-makemake-could-have-geothermal-activity. 
  29. ↑ "Astronomers Uncover Surprising Activity on the Dwarf Planets Eris and Makemake". 2024-02-20. https://scitechdaily.com/astronomers-uncover-surprising-activity-on-the-dwarf-planets-eris-and-makemake/. 
  30. ↑ Michael E. Brown. "The Dwarf Planets". California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/dwarfplanets/. 
  31. ↑ "Dwarf Planets and their Systems". Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). U.S. Geological Survey. 2008-11-07. https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/Planets#makemake. 
  32. ↑ Gonzalo Tancredi; Sofia Favre (June 2008). "Which are the dwarfs in the Solar System?". Icarus 195 (2): 851–862. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.12.020. Bibcode: 2008Icar..195..851T. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/acm2008/pdf/8261.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-03. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 33.7 33.8 Glein, Christopher R.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (April 2024). "Moderate D/H ratios in methane ice on Eris and Makemake as evidence of hydrothermal or metamorphic processes in their interiors: Geochemical analysis". Icarus 412. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.115999. Bibcode: 2024Icar..41215999G. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7 34.8 The Hunt for Planet X: New Worlds and the Fate of Pluto. Springer. 2009. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77805-1. ISBN 978-0-387-77805-1. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-0-387-77805-1.pdf. Retrieved 2025-10-26. 
  35. ↑ Schwamb, Megan. "The QUEST Camera". The La Silla QUEST KBO Survey. Yale University. http://www.astro.yale.edu/mschwamb/Quest_La_Silla_KBO_Survey/Telescope_and_Camera.html. Retrieved 2025-10-23. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Brown, M. E.; Trujillo, C. A.; Rabinowitz, D. (2005-07-29). Green, Daniel W. E.. ed. "2003 EL_61, 2003 UB_313, and 2005 FY_9". IAU Circulars (Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams) (8577): 1. Bibcode: 2005IAUC.8577....1B. http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08500/08577.html#Item1. Retrieved 2025-10-23. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 Brown, Mike (December 2010). How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming. Spiegel & Grau. pp. 63–85. ISBN 978-0-385-53108-5. 
  38. ↑ Brown, Mike (2013-04-03). "The dwarf planet that gets no respect". Mike Brown's Planets. http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/07/whats-in-name-part-2.html. 
  39. ↑ Hecht, Jeff (2005-07-30). "Tenth planet discovered in outer solar system". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7763-tenth-planet-discovered-in-outer-solar-system/. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Brown, M. E.; Trujillo, C. A.; Rabinowitz, D.; Marsden, B. G. (2005-07-29). "MPEC 2005-O42: 2005 FY9". Minor Planet Electronic Circular (Minor Planet Center) 2005-O42. Bibcode: 2005MPEC....O...42B. https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K05/K05O42.html. Retrieved 2025-10-23. 
  41. ↑ Sinnott, Roger W. (2005-09-11). "Pluto Gets an Asteroid Number". Sky & Telescope. https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/pluto-gets-an-asteroid-number/. 
  42. ↑ Than, Ker (2005-09-11). "Pluto is Now Just a Number: 134340". https://www.space.com/2876-pluto-number-134340.html. 
  43. ↑ Yeager, Ashley (2008-07-21). "Makemake makes the list". https://www.sciencenews.org/article/makemake-makes-list. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Makemake -- or Easter bunny -- enters book of space names". 2008-07-15. https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Makemake_or_Easter_bunny_enters_book_of_space_names_999.html. 
  45. ↑ "Naming Astronomical Objects – Minor Planets". International Astronomical Union. https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/#minorplanets. "Objects, including dwarf planets, far beyond the orbit of Neptune are expected to be given the name of a deity or figure related to creation; for example Makemake, the Polynesian creator of humanity and god of fertility..."
    "Objects sufficiently outside Neptune's orbit that orbital stability is reasonably assured for a substantial fraction of the lifetime of the solar system (so called Cubewanos or "classical" TNOs) are given mythological names associated with creation."     
  46. ↑ "Proposed New Characters: The Pipeline". https://www.unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html. 
  47. ↑ Boeck, Moore (2018-01-30). "Solar System Symbols". NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/resource/solar-system-symbols/. Retrieved 2025-10-31. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Miller, Kirk (2021-10-26). "Unicode request for dwarf-planet symbols". https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21224-dwarf-planet-syms.pdf. 
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  50. ↑ Anderson, Deborah (2022-05-04). "Out of this World: New Astronomy Symbols Approved for the Unicode Standard". The Unicode Consortium. http://blog.unicode.org/2022/05/out-of-this-world-new-astronomy-symbols.html. 
  51. ↑ S. C. Tegler; W. M. Grundy; W. Romanishin; G. J. Consolmagno et al. (2007-01-08). "Optical Spectroscopy of the Large Kuiper Belt Objects 136472 (2005 FY9) and 136108 (2003 EL61)". The Astronomical Journal 133 (2): 526–530. doi:10.1086/510134. Bibcode: 2007AJ....133..526T. 
  52. ↑ "Asteroid 136108 (2003 EL61)". HORIZONS Web-Interface. JPL Solar System Dynamics. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=sb&sstr=2003EL61. 
  53. ↑ "MPEC 2009-P26 :Distant Minor Planets (2009 AUG. 17.0 TT)". IAU Minor Planet Center. 2009-08-07. https://minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K09/K09P26.html. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 David Jewitt (February 2000). "Classical Kuiper Belt Objects (CKBOs)". University of Hawaii. http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/kb/kb-classical.html. 
  55. ↑ Jane X. Luu; David C. Jewitt (2002). "Kuiper Belt Objects: Relics from the Accretion Disk of the Sun". Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 40 (1): 63–101. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.40.060401.093818. Bibcode: 2002ARA&A..40...63L. http://www.gsmt.noao.edu/gsmt_swg/SWG_Apr03/The_Kuiper_Belt.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-04. 
  56. ↑ "The 2009-02-04 nominal (non-librating) rotating frame for Makemake.". http://www.orbitsimulator.com/yabbfiles/Attachments/Makemake40000y_13to7.gif. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Williams, David R. (2024-01-11). "Pluto Fact Sheet". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/plutofact.html. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Barnett, Amanda (2025-04-24). "Makemake Facts". NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/dwarf-planets/makemake/. 
  59. ↑ Carneyf, Stephen (2025-09-03). "Planet Sizes and Locations in Our Solar System". NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/planets/planet-sizes-and-locations-in-our-solar-system/. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Kiss, C.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (December 2019). "The mass and density of the dwarf planet (225088) 2007 OR10". Icarus 334: 3–10. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.03.013. Bibcode: 2019Icar..334....3K. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "2018 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg. Retrieved 2019-05-20. 
  62. ↑ 62.00 62.01 62.02 62.03 62.04 62.05 62.06 62.07 62.08 62.09 Parker, Alex H. (July 2021). "Trans-Neptunian Space and the Post-Pluto Paradigm". The Pluto System After New Horizons. University of Arizona Press. doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816540945-ch023. ISBN 978-0-8165-4210-9. https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.02224. Retrieved 2025-09-16. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 E. L. Schaller; M. E. Brown (2007-04-10). "Volatile Loss and Retention on Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astrophysical Journal 659 (1): L61–L64. doi:10.1086/516709. Bibcode: 2007ApJ...659L..61S. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 M. E. Brown; E. L. Schaller; G. A. Blake (2015). "Irradiation products on the dwarf planet Makemake". The Astronomical Journal 149 (3): 105. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/149/3/105. Bibcode: 2015AJ....149..105B. http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0a61/555601e2bd748b32852e12277183602517f4.pdf. 
  65. ↑ 65.00 65.01 65.02 65.03 65.04 65.05 65.06 65.07 65.08 65.09 65.10 65.11 65.12 65.13 65.14 Grundy, W. M.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (March 2024). "Measurement of D/H and 13C/12C ratios in methane ice on Eris and Makemake: Evidence for internal activity". Icarus 411: 115933. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115923. Bibcode: 2024Icar..41115923G. 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 66.4 66.5 Perna, D.; Hromakina, T.; Merlin, F.; Ieva, S.; Fornasier, S.; Belskaya, I.; Epifani, E. Mazzotta (2017-04-21). "The very homogeneous surface of the dwarf planet Makemake" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 466 (3): 3594–3599. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3272. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2017MNRAS.466.3594P. https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01526061/file/stw3272.pdf. Retrieved 2019-07-01. 
  67. ↑ Barucci, M. A.; Brown, M. E.; Emery, J. P.; Merlin, F. (2008). "Composition and Surface Properties of Transneptunian Objects and Centaurs". The Solar System Beyond Neptune. University of Arizona Press. pp. 143–160. ISBN 978-0-8165-2755-7. Bibcode: 2008ssbn.book..143B. https://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/out/kbbook/Chapters/Barucci_Spectra.pdf. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Licandro, J.; Pinilla-Alonso, N.; Pedani, M.; Oliva, E.; Tozzi, G. P.; Grundy, W. M. (January 2006). "The methane ice rich surface of large TNO 2005 FY9: a Pluto-twin in the trans-neptunian belt?". Astronomy & Astrophysics 445 (3): L35–L38. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500219. Bibcode: 2006A&A...445L..35L. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 A. N. Heinze; D. deLahunta (2009). "The rotation period and light-curve amplitude of Kuiper belt dwarf planet 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9)". The Astronomical Journal 138 (2): 428–438. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/138/2/428. Bibcode: 2009AJ....138..428H. 
  70. ↑ "Pluto in True Color". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. 2024-01-28. https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap240128.html. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Emery, J. P.Expression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (March 2024). "A Tale of 3 Dwarf Planets: Ices and Organics on Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar from JWST Spectroscopy". Icarus 414. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2024.116017. Bibcode: 2024Icar..41416017E. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Mousis, Olivier; Aaron, Werlen; Benest Couzinou, Tom; Schneeberger, Antoine (April 2025). "Primordial Origin of Methane on Eris and Makemake Supported by D/H Ratios". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 983 (1): L12. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adc134. Bibcode: 2025ApJ...983L..12M. 
  73. ↑ Lorenzi, V.; Pinilla-Alonso, N.; Licandro, J. (2015-05-01). "Rotationally resolved spectroscopy of dwarf planet (136472) Makemake" (in en). Astronomy & Astrophysics 577: A86. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425575. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2015A&A...577A..86L. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 McKinnon, W. B.; Prialnik, D. (2008). "Structure and Evolution of Kuiper Belt Objects and Dwarf Planets". The Solar System Beyond Neptune. University of Arizona Press. pp. 213–241. ISBN 978-0-8165-2755-7. Bibcode: 2008ssbn.book..213M. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/ssbn2008/7035.pdf. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 Parker, Alex (2016-05-02). "A Moon for Makemake". The Planetary Society. http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2016/0502-a-moon-for-makemake.html. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 O'Callaghan, Jonathan (2024-11-05). "Distant dwarf planet Makemake might have a surprising ice volcano". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2455052-distant-dwarf-planet-makemake-might-have-a-surprising-ice-volcano/. 
  77. ↑ Andrews, Robin George (2024-02-28). "JWST Spies Surprising Signs of Warmth in Frozen Solar System Worlds". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/jwst-spies-surprising-signs-of-warmth-in-frozen-solar-system-worlds/. 
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Benningfield, Damond (2024-03-27). "Dwarf Planets Show Evidence of Recent Geologic Activity". Eos 105. doi:10.1029/2024EO240143. https://eos.org/articles/dwarf-planets-show-evidence-of-recent-geologic-activity. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 "Hubble Discovers Moon Orbiting the Dwarf Planet Makemake". NASA. 2016-04-26. https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/hubble-discovers-moon-orbiting-the-dwarf-planet-makemake/. 
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 Thomas, Mike W. (2025-09-09). "SwRI-led team discovers methane gas on Makemake". Southwest Research Institute. https://www.swri.org/newsroom/press-releases/swri-led-team-discovers-methane-gas-makemake. 
  81. ↑ Menten, Stephanie M.; Sori, Michael M.; Bramson, Ali M. (August 2022). "Endogenically sourced volatiles on Charon and other Kuiper belt objects". Nature Communications 13: 4457. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-31846-8. PMID 35945207. Bibcode: 2022NatCo..13.4457M. 
  82. ↑ "MPEC 2016-H46: S/2015 (136472) 1". Minor Planet Electronic Circular (Minor Planet Center) 2016-H46. 2016-04-26. Bibcode: 2016MPEC....H...46P. https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K16/K16H46.html. Retrieved 2025-09-19. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 Burkhart, Luke D.; Ragozzine, Darin; Brown, Michael E. (June 2016). "A Deep Search for Additional Satellites around the Dwarf Planet Haumea". The Astronomical Journal 151 (6): 162. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/6/162. Bibcode: 2016AJ....151..162B. 
  84. ↑ Sicardy, Bruno; Braga-Ribas, Felipe; Buie, Marc W.; Ortiz, José Luis; Roques, Françoise (December 2024). "Stellar occultations by trans-Neptunian objects". The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 32 (1). doi:10.1007/s00159-024-00156-x. 6. Bibcode: 2024A&ARv..32....6S. 
  85. ↑ Schmid, Deb (2025-02-15). "SwRI scientists find evidence of geothermal activity within icy dwarf planets". Southwest Research Institute. https://www.swri.org/newsroom/press-releases/swri-scientists-find-evidence-of-geothermal-activity-within-icy-dwarf-planets. 
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 86.3 Moore, Jeffrey M.; McKinnon, William B. (May 2021). "Geologically Diverse Pluto and Charon: Implications for the Dwarf Planets of the Kuiper Belt". Annual Reviews 49: 173–200. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-071720-051448. Bibcode: 2021AREPS..49..173M. 
  87. ↑ de Sousa Ribeiro, Rafael; Morbidelli, Alessandro; Raymond, Sean N.; Izidoro, Andre; Gomes, Rodney; Vieira Neto, Ernesto (March 2020). "Dynamical evidence for an early giant planet instability". Icarus 339. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.113605. Bibcode: 2020Icar..33913605D. 
  88. ↑ "MPC Database Search: H < 3.8 and a > 20 AU". Minor Planet Center. https://data.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_by_properties?utf8=%E2%9C%93&semimajor_axis_min=20&semimajor_axis_max=&eccentricity_min=&eccentricity_max=&inclination_min=&inclination_max=&argument_of_perihelion_min=&argument_of_perihelion_max=&ascending_node_min=&ascending_node_max=&mean_anomaly_min=&mean_anomaly_max=&mean_daily_motion_min=&mean_daily_motion_max=&perihelion_distance_min=&perihelion_distance_max=&aphelion_distance_min=&aphelion_distance_max=&period_min=&period_max=&absolute_magnitude_min=&absolute_magnitude_max=3.8&orbit_uncertainty_min=&orbit_uncertainty_max=. Retrieved 2025-08-16. "22 trans-Neptunian objects brighter than H = 3.8"  (smaller values of H are brighter)
  89. ↑ Harris, Alan W.; Harris, Alan W. (April 1997). "On the Revision of Radiometric Albedos and Diameters of Asteroids". Icarus 126 (2): 450–454. doi:10.1006/ICAR.1996.5664. Bibcode: 1997Icar..126..450H. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "The discovery of Eris, the largest known dwarf planet". California Institute of Technology. https://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/. Retrieved 2025-10-17. 
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Ford, Dominic (2025-03-30). "136472 Makemake at opposition". https://in-the-sky.org/news.php?id=20250331_13_100. Retrieved 2025-10-17. 
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 "JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris for 136472 Makemake (2005 FY9) on 2005 Jan 1–2030 Jan 1 (apparent magnitude and constellations shown)". JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%27Makemake%27&TABLE_TYPE=%27OBSERVER%27&START_TIME=%272020-01-01%27&STOP_TIME=%272030-01-01%27&STEP_SIZE=%2710d%27&CENTER=%27500@399%27&QUANTITIES=%271,9,20,29%27. Retrieved 2025-10-17.  Ephemeris Type: Observer and Center: 500@399 (geocentric)
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Tichy, Milos; Ticha, Jana (2007-01-17). "TNO 2005 FY9". Kleť Observatory. https://www.klet.org/klenot/html/k05f09y.html. Retrieved 2025-10-16. 
  94. ↑ Betts, Bruce (2007-03-01). "Updates from Past Recipients of the Shoemaker NEO Grants (1 March 2007)". The Planetary Society. https://www.planetary.org/articles/update_200703. Retrieved 2025-10-16. 
  95. ↑ "M.P.S. 138898". Minor Planets and Comets Supplement (Minor Planet Center) (138898): 110. 2005-08-07. https://minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2005/MPS_20050807.pdf#page=110. Retrieved 2025-10-16. 
  96. ↑ "M.P.S. 598178". Minor Planets and Comets Supplement (Minor Planet Center) (598178): 494. 2015-04-12. https://minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2015/MPS_20150412.pdf#page=494. Retrieved 2025-10-23. 
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 "Dwarf Planet Makemake Lacks Atmosphere". European Southern Observatory. http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1246/. 
  98. ↑ Ortiz, J. L.; Sicardy, B.; Assafin, M.; Alvarez-Candal, A.; Ivanov, V. D.; Camargo, J. (October 2011). "The stellar occultation by Makemake on 2011 April 23". EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2011. Nantes, France. p. 704. Bibcode: 2011epsc.conf..704O. https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-704.pdf. 
  99. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
  100. ↑ Grundy, W. M.; McKinnon, W. B.; Ammannito, E.; Aung, M.; Bellerose, J; Brenker, F. (December 2009). "Exploration Strategy for the Ice Dwarf Planets 2013-2022". Small Bodies Assessment Group. Lunar and Planetary Institute. Bibcode: 2009AGUFM.P43D1471G. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/decadal/sbag/community_wp/SB_Community_WP_Final_Dwarfs.pdf. 
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 McGranaghan, R.; Sagan, B.; Dove, G.; Tullos, A.; Lyne, J. E.; Emery, J. P. (2011). "A Survey of Mission Opportunities to Trans-Neptunian Objects". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 64: 296–303. Bibcode: 2011JBIS...64..296M. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258495993_A_Survey_of_Mission_Opportunities_to_Trans-Neptunian_Objects. 
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Anderson, Canaan; Johnson, Mills F.; Nash, Noah C.; Pentecost, Mitchell R.; Syracuse, Joseph A.; Von Bargen, Laura E.; Lyne, James E. (August 2024). "Powered Jupiter Gravity Assists for Shortened Transit Times to Trans-Neptunian Objects". 2024 AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics Specialist Conference. Denver, Colorado. p. AAS 24-472. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/James-Lyne/publication/388235046_POWERED_JUPITER_GRAVITY_ASSISTS_FOR_SHORTENED_TRANSIT_TIMES_TO_TRANS-NEPTUNIAN_OBJECTS/links/679095f81ec9f9589f574502/POWERED-JUPITER-GRAVITY-ASSISTS-FOR-SHORTENED-TRANSIT-TIMES-TO-TRANS-NEPTUNIAN-OBJECTS.pdf. Retrieved 2025-10-19. 
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 Zangari, Amanda M.; Finley, Tiffany J.; Stern, S. Alan; Tapley, Mark B. (May 2019). "Return to the Kuiper Belt: Launch Opportunities from 2025 to 2040". Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 56 (3): 919–930. doi:10.2514/1.A34329. Bibcode: 2019JSpRo..56..919Z. 
  104. ↑ Barucci, M. A.; Fulchignoni, M. (August 1982). "The Dependence of Asteroid Lightcurves on the Orientation Parameters and the Shapes of Asteroids". Earth, Moon, and Planets 27: 47. Bibcode: 1982M&P....27...47B. 

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