Chemistry:Sodium fluoroacetate

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Sodium fluoroacetate
Sodium-fluoroacetate-2D-skeletal.svg
Sodium-fluoroacetate-xtal-3D-SF.png
Multiple sodium fluoroacetate molecules arranged in a crystal. Fluorines are shown in yellow, sodium in purple, oxygen in red.
Names
IUPAC name
Sodium 2-fluoroacetate
Other names
1080; SFA; Sodium monofluoroacetate; Compound 1080
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
3915223
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
EC Number
  • 200-548-2
470376
KEGG
RTECS number
  • AH9100000
UNII
UN number 2629
Properties
NaFC2H2O2
Molar mass 100.0 g/mol
Appearance Fluffy, colorless-to-white powder
Odor odorless[1]
Melting point 200 °C (392 °F; 473 K)
Boiling point Decomposes
soluble
Hazards
Main hazards Toxic, Flammable
GHS pictograms GHS06: ToxicGHS09: Environmental hazard
GHS Signal word Danger
H300, H310, H330, H400
P260, P262, P264, P270, P271, P273, P280, P284, P301+310, P302+350, P304+340, P310, P320, P321, P322, P330, P361, P363, P391, P403+233, P405, P501
Flash point ?
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
1.7 mg/kg (rat, oral)
0.34 mg/kg (rabbit, oral)
0.1 mg/kg (rat, oral)
0.3 mg/kg (guinea pig, oral)
0.1 mg/kg (mouse, oral)[2]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
 TWA 0.05 mg/m3 [skin][1]
REL (Recommended)
 TWA 0.05 mg/m3 ST 0.15 mg/m3 [skin][1]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
 2.5 mg/m3[1]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is ☑Y☒N ?)
Infobox references
Tracking categories (test):

Sodium fluoroacetate, also known as compound 1080, is an organofluorine chemical compound with the formula FCH2CO2Na. This colourless salt has a taste similar to that of table salt (sodium chloride) and is used as a rodenticide.

History and production

The effectiveness of sodium fluoroacetate as a rodenticide was reported in 1942.[3] The name "1080" refers to the catalogue number of the poison, which became its brand name.[4]

The salt is synthesized by treating sodium chloroacetate with potassium fluoride.[5]

Both sodium and potassium salts are derivatives of fluoroacetic acid.

Natural occurrence

Fluoroacetate occurs naturally in at least 40 plants in Australia , Brazil , and Africa. It is one of only five known organic fluorine-containing natural products.[6]

Fluoroacetate occurrence in Gastrolobium species

Gastrolobium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. This genus consists of over 100 species, and all but two are native to the southwest region of Western Australia, where they are known as "poison peas". Gastrolobium growing in southwestern Australia concentrate fluoroacetate from low-fluoride soils.[7] Brush-tailed possums, bush rats, and western grey kangaroos native to this region are capable of safely eating plants containing fluoroacetate, but livestock and introduced species from elsewhere in Australia are highly susceptible to the poison,[8] as are species introduced from outside Australia, such as the red fox. The fact that many Gastrolobium species also have high secondary toxicity to non-native carnivores is thought to have limited the ability of cats to establish populations in locations where the plants form a major part of the understorey vegetation.[9]

The presence of Gastrolobium species in Western Australia has often forced farmers to 'scalp' their land, that is, remove the top soil and any poison pea seed which it may contain, and replace it with a new poison pea-free top soil sourced from elsewhere in which to sow crops. Similarly, after bushfires in north-western Queensland, cattlemen have to move livestock before the poisonous Gastrolobium grandiflorum emerges from the ashes.[10]

Dichapetalum cymosum

The related compound potassium fluoroacetate occurs naturally as a defensive compound in at least 40 plant species in Australia , New Zealand,[11][12] Brazil , and Africa. It was first identified in Dichapetalum cymosum, commonly known as gifblaar or poison leaf, by Marais in 1944.[13][14] As early as 1904, colonists in Sierra Leone used extracts of Chailletia toxicaria, which also contains fluoroacetic acid or its salts, to poison rats.[15][16][17] Several native Australian plant genera contain the toxin, including Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Oxylobium, Nemcia, and Acacia. New Zealand's native Puha contains 1080 in very low concentrations.[18]

Toxicology

Sodium fluoroacetate is toxic to all obligate aerobic organisms, and highly toxic to mammals and insects.[4] The oral dose of sodium fluoroacetate sufficient to be lethal in humans is 2–10 mg/kg.[19]

The toxicity varies with species. The New Zealand Food Safety Authority established lethal doses for a number of species. Dogs, cats, and pigs appear to be most susceptible to poisoning.[20]

The enzyme fluoroacetate dehalogenase has been discovered in a soil bacterium, which can detoxify fluoroacetate in the surrounding medium.[21]

Mechanism of action

Fluoroacetate is structurally similar to acetate, which has a pivotal role in cellular metabolism. This similarity is the basis of the toxicity of fluoroacetate. Two related mechanisms for its toxicity have been discussed, with both beginning with the conversion of fluoroacetate to 2-fluorocitrate. 2-Fluorocitrate arises by condensation with oxaloacetate with fluoroacetyl coenzyme A, catalyzed by citrate synthase. Fluorocitrate binds very tightly to aconitase, thereby halting the citric acid cycle. This inhibition results in an accumulation of citrate in the blood. Citrate and fluorocitrate are allosteric inhibitors of phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), a key enzyme in glycolysis. When PFK-1 is inhibited, cells are no longer able to metabolize carbohydrates, depriving them of energy.[22] Alternatively, fluorocitrate interferes with citrate transport in the mitochondria.[23]

Symptoms

In humans, the symptoms of poisoning normally appear between 30 minutes and three hours after exposure. Initial symptoms typically include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain; sweating, confusion, and agitation follow. In significant poisoning, cardiac abnormalities including tachycardia or bradycardia, hypotension, and ECG changes develop. Neurological effects include muscle twitching and seizures; consciousness becomes progressively impaired after a few hours leading to coma. Death is normally due to ventricular arrhythmias, progressive hypotension unresponsive to treatment, and aspiration pneumonia.[4]

Symptoms in domestic animals vary: dogs tend to show nervous system signs such as convulsions, vocalization, and uncontrollable running, while large herbivores such as cattle and sheep more predominantly show cardiac signs.[24]

Sub-lethal doses of sodium fluoroacetate may cause damage to tissues with high energy needs — in particular, the brain, gonads, heart, lungs, and fetus. Sub-lethal doses are typically completely metabolised and excreted within four days.[25]

Treatment

Effective antidotes are unknown. Research in monkeys has shown that the use of glyceryl monoacetate can prevent problems if given after ingestion of sodium fluoroacetate, and this therapy has been tested in domestic animals with some positive results. In theory, glyceryl monoacetate supplies acetate ions to allow continuation of cellular respiration which the sodium fluoroacetate had disrupted.[26]

Experiments of N. V. Goncharov and co-workers resulted in development of two varieties of potentially successful[quantify] treatments. One combines a phenothiazine compound and a dioic acid compound.[vague] The other includes a phenothiazine compound, a nitroester compound,[vague] and ethanol.[27]

In clinical cases, use of muscle relaxants, anti-convulsants, mechanical ventilation, and other supportive measures may all be required. Few animals or people have been treated successfully after significant sodium fluoroacetate ingestions.[28]

Tolerance

Animals can tolerate varying amounts of fluoroacetate. Mammalian carnivores and rodents tend to be the least tolerant, followed by mammalian herbivores, reptiles and amphibians, and finally fish. A lower metabolic rate seems to help with poison tolerance in general.[29]

Many animals native to Australia seem to have developed additional tolerance to fluoroacetate beyond what general trends predict. Herbivore, seed-eating birds are exposed to very high amounts of natural fluoroacetate with no ill effect. Emus living in areas where fluoroacetate-producing plants grow can tolerate 150 times the concentration compared to emus living outside. Some native insects tolerate fluoroacetate and repurpose it as a defense chemical against carnivores.[29]

Fluoacetate tolerance can be acquired in animals, though it is not fully clear how.[29] In one study, sheep gut bacteria were genetically engineered to contain the fluoroacetate dehalogenase enzyme that inactivates sodium fluoroacetate. The bacteria were administered to sheep, who then showed reduced signs of toxicity after sodium fluoroacetate ingestion.[30] A strain of natural bacteriun that does the same was isolated from cattle rumen in 2012.[29]

Pesticide use

Common brushtail possum, an invasive pest in New Zealand whose population is controlled with sodium fluoroacetate

Sodium fluoroacetate is used as a pesticide, especially for mammalian pest species. Farmers and graziers use the poison to protect pastures and crops from various herbivorous mammals. In New Zealand and Australia it is also used to control invasive non-native mammals that prey on or compete with native wildlife and vegetation.

Australia

In Australia, sodium fluoroacetate was first used in rabbit control programmes in the early 1950s, where it is regarded as having "a long history of proven effectiveness and safety".[31] It is seen as a critical component of the integrated pest-control programmes for rabbits, foxes, wild dogs, and feral pigs. Since 1994, broad-scale fox control using 1080 meat baits in Western Australia has significantly improved the population numbers of several native species and led, for the first time, to three species of mammals being taken off the state's endangered species list. In Australia, minor direct mortality of native animal populations from 1080 baits is regarded as acceptable, compared to the predatory and competitive effects of those introduced species being managed using 1080.[32]

Western Shield is a project to boost populations of endangered mammals in south-west Australia conducted by the Department of Environment and Conservation of Western Australia. The project entails distributing fluoroacetate-baited meat from the air to kill predators. Wild dogs and foxes will readily eat the baited meat. Cats pose a greater difficulty as they are generally not interested in scavenging. However, an Australian RSPCA-commissioned study criticized 1080, calling it an inhumane killer.[33] Some Western Australian herbivores (notably, the local subspecies of the tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii derbianus, but not the subspecies M. e. eugenii of southern Australia and M. e. decres on Kangaroo Island) have, by natural selection, developed partial immunity to the effects of fluoroacetate,[34] so that its use as a poison may reduce collateral damage to some native herbivores specific to that area.

In 2011, over 3,750 toxic baits containing 3 ml of 1080 were laid across 520 properties over 48,000 hectares (120,000 acres) between the Tasmanian settlements of Southport and Hobart as part of an ongoing attempt at the world's biggest invasive animal eradication operation – the eradication of red foxes[35] from the island state. The baits were spread at the rate of one per 10 hectares and were buried, to mitigate the risk to non-target wildlife species like Tasmanian devils.[36] Native animals are also targeted with 1080.[37] During May 2005 up to 200,000 Bennett's wallabies on King Island were intentionally killed in one of the largest coordinated 1080 poisonings seen in Tasmania.[38][39]

In 2016, PAPP (para-amino propiophenone) became available for use, which the RSPCA has endorsed as an alternative to 1080, due in part to its ability to kill faster and cause less suffering, as well as having an antidote, which 1080 does not.[40] However, (As of June 2023), 1080 was still being used in attempts to reduce feral cat populations.[41]

New Zealand

Sign warning of poisonous sodium fluoroacetate baits on the West Coast of New Zealand

Worldwide, New Zealand is the largest user of sodium fluoroacetate.[19] This high usage is attributable to the fact that, apart from two species of bat,[42] New Zealand has no native land mammals, and some of those that have been introduced have had devastating effects on vegetation and native species. 1080 is used to control possums, rats, stoats, deer, and rabbits.[43] The largest users, despite some vehement opposition,[44] are OSPRI New Zealand and the Department of Conservation.[45]

United States

Sodium fluoroacetate is used in the United States to kill coyotes.[46] Prior to 1972 when the EPA cancelled all uses, sodium fluoroacetate was used much more widely as a cheap[47] predacide and rodenticide; in 1985, the restricted-use "toxic collar" approval was finalized.[48]

Other countries

1080 is used as a rodenticide in Mexico, Japan, Korea, and Israel.[4][49] In Israel 0.05% sodium fluoroacetate whole wheat grain baits are used to prevent heavy crop loss to field crops during mass outbreaks of the field rodents Microtus guentheri, Meriones tristrami and Mus musculus populations ([50])

Environmental impacts

Water

Because 1080 is highly water-soluble, it will be dispersed and diluted in the environment by rain, stream water, and ground water. Sodium fluoroacetate at the concentrations found in the environment after standard baiting operations will break down in natural water containing living organisms, such as aquatic plants or micro-organisms. Water-monitoring surveys, conducted during the 1990s, have confirmed that significant contamination of waterways following aerial application of 1080 bait is possible, but unlikely.[51] Research by NIWA showed that 1080 deliberately placed in small streams for testing was undetectable at the placement site after 8 hours, as it washed downstream. Testing was not done downstream.[52]

In New Zealand, surface water is routinely monitored after aerial application of 1080, and water samples are collected immediately after application, when there is the highest possibility of detecting contamination.[53] Of 2442 water samples tested in New Zealand between 1990 and 2010, following aerial 1080 operations: 96.5% had no detectable 1080 at all and, of all the samples, only six were equal to, or above the Ministry of Health level for drinking water, and none of these came from drinking water supplies.[54] Of 592 samples taken from human or stock drinking supplies, only four contained detectable 1080 residues at 0.1ppb (1 sample) and 0.2 ppb (3 samples) – all well below the Ministry of Health level of 2 ppb.

In an experiment funded by the Animal Health Board and conducted by NIWA simulating the effects of rainfall on 1080 on a steep soil-covered hillside a few meters from a stream, it was found that 99.9% of the water containing 1080 leached straight into the soil (See 4.3 of[55]) and did not flow over the ground to the stream as had been expected. The experiment also measured contamination of soil water, which was described as the water carried through the soil underground at short horizontal distances (0.5-3m), downhill toward the stream. The experiment did not measure contamination of deeper soil and ground water immediately beneath the site of application.[55]

Soil

The fate of 1080 in the soil has been established by research defining the degradation of naturally occurring fluoroacetate (Oliver, 1977). Sodium fluoroacetate is water-soluble, and residues from uneaten baits leach into the soil where they are degraded to non-toxic metabolites by soil microorganisms, including bacteria (Pseudomonas) and the common soil fungus (Fusarium solani) (David and Gardiner, 1966; Bong, Cole and Walker, 1979; Walker and Bong, 1981).[56]

Birds

Although it is now infrequent, individual aerial 1080 operations can still sometimes affect local bird populations if not carried out with sufficient care. In New Zealand, individuals from 19 species of native birds and 13 species of introduced birds have been found dead after aerial 1080 drops. Most of these recorded bird deaths were associated with only four operations in the 1970s that used poor-quality carrot baits with many small fragments.[57] On the other hand, many native New Zealand bird populations have been successfully protected by reducing predator numbers through aerial 1080 operations. Kokako, blue duck,[58] New Zealand pigeon,[59] kiwi,[60] kaka,[61] New Zealand falcon,[62] tomtit,[63] South Island robin,[64] North Island robin,[65] New Zealand parakeets (kākāriki), and yellowhead[66] have all responded well to pest control programmes using aerial 1080 operations, with increased chick and adult survival, and increases in population size. In contrast, seven of 38 tagged kea, the endemic alpine parrot, were killed[67] during an aerial possum control operation in Ōkārito Forest conducted by DOC and AHB in August 2011. Because of their omnivorous feeding habits and inquisitive behaviour, kea are known to be particularly susceptible to 1080 poison baits, as well as other environmental poisons like the zinc and lead used in the flashings of backcountry huts and farm buildings.[68] Recent research found that proximity to human-occupied sites where kea scrounge human food is inversely related to survival; the odds of survival increased by a factor of 6.9 for remote kea compared to those that lived near scrounging sites. High survival in remote areas is explained by innate neophobia and a short field-life of prefeed baits, which together preclude acceptance of poison baits as familiar food.[69]

Reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are susceptible to 1080, although much less sensitive than mammals.[70] Amphibian and reptile species that have been tested in Australia are generally more tolerant to 1080 poison than are most other animals.[71] McIlroy (1992) calculated that even if lizards fed entirely on insects or other animals poisoned with 1080, they could never ingest enough poison to receive a lethal dose.[72] Laboratory trials in New Zealand simulating worst-case scenarios indicate that both Leiopelma archeyi (Archey's frog) and L. hochstetteri (Hochstetter's frog) can absorb 1080 from contaminated water, substrate, or prey. The chance of this occurring in the wild is ameliorated by a variety of factors, including frog ecology. Captive maintenance and contamination problems rendered parts of this study inconclusive. Further population monitoring is recommended to provide more conclusive evidence than provided by this single study.[73] In New Zealand, the secondary poisoning of feral cats and stoats following 1080 operations is likely to have a positive effect on the recovery of native skink and gecko populations.[74][75][76]:257 Killing rabbits[77] and possums,[78] which compete for food with skinks and geckos, may also have benefits.

Fish

Fish generally have very low sensitivity to 1080. Toxicity tests have been conducted in the US on bluegill sunfish, rainbow trout, and the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna. Tests at different 1080 concentrations on sunfish (for four days) and Daphnia (two days) showed that 1080 is "practically non-toxic" (a US EPA classification) to both these species. Rainbow trout were also tested over four days at four concentrations ranging from 39 to 170 mg 1080 per litre. From these results an LC50 (the concentration of 1080 per litre of water which theoretically kills 50% of the test fish) can be calculated. The LC50 for rainbow trout was calculated to be 54 mg 1080/litre – far in excess of any known concentration of 1080 found in water samples following 1080 aerial operations. Thus 1080 is unlikely to cause mortality in freshwater fish.[79]

Invertebrates

Insects are susceptible to 1080 poisoning. Some field trials in New Zealand have shown that insect numbers can be temporarily reduced within 20 cm of toxic baits, but numbers return to normal levels within six days of the bait being removed.[80] Other trials have found no evidence that insect communities are negatively affected.[81] Another New Zealand study showed that wētā, native ants, and freshwater crayfish excrete 1080 within one to two weeks.[82] There is also evidence that 1080 aerial operations in New Zealand can benefit invertebrate species.[83] Both possums and rats are a serious threat to endemic invertebrates in New Zealand, where around 90 per cent of spiders and insects are endemic and have evolved without predatory mammals.[84] In a study on the diet of brushtail possums, 47.5 per cent of possum faeces examined between January 1979 and June 1983 contained invertebrates, mostly insects.[85] One possum can eat up to 60 endangered native land snails (Powelliphanta spp.) in one night.[86]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0564". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0564.html. 
  2. ↑ "Sodium fluoroacetate". Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/62748.html. 
  3. ↑ Kalmbach, E. R. (1945). "Ten-Eighty, a War-Produced Rodenticide". Science 102 (2644): 232–233. doi:10.1126/science.102.2644.232. PMID 17778513. Bibcode: 1945Sci...102..232K. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Proudfoot, A. T.; Bradberry, S. M.; Vale, J. A. (2006). "Sodium fluoroacetate poisoning". Toxicological Reviews 25 (4): 213–219. doi:10.2165/00139709-200625040-00002. PMID 17288493. 
  5. ↑ "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_307. 
  6. ↑ K.K. Jason Chan; David O'Hagan (2012). "The Rare Fluorinated Natural Products and Biotechnological Prospects for Fluorine Enzymology". Natural Product Biosynthesis by Microorganisms and Plants, Part B. Methods in Enzymology. 516. pp. 219–235. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-394291-3.00003-4. ISBN 9780123942913. 
  7. ↑ Lee, J. (1998). "Deadly plants face threat of extinction". ANU Reporter (Australian National University) 29 (6). http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Newsletters_and_Journals/ANU_Reporter/_pdf/vol_29_no_06/extinction.html. Retrieved 2012-08-07. 
  8. ↑ McKenzie, R. (1997). "Australian Native Poisonous Plants". Australian Plants Online. Australian Native Plants Society. http://anpsa.org.au/APOL7/sep97-4.html. 
  9. ↑ Short, J.; Atkins, L.; Turner, B. (2005). Diagnosis of Mammal Decline in Western Australia, with Particular Emphasis on the Possible Role of Feral Cats and Poison Peas. Australia: Wildlife Research and Management Pty. http://www.wildliferesearchmanagement.com.au/Report_NGS.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-26. 
  10. ↑ "Death Lurks in the Ashes on Western Farms". 2015-11-19. http://www.thisisnoble.com/in-the-press/2213-death-lurks-in-the-ashes-on-western-farms.html. 
  11. ↑ Ogilvie, S.C; Miller, A (May 2009). "Uptake of 1080 by Watercress and Puha - Culturally-Important Plants Used for Food". Lincoln University Management Report 49. 
  12. ↑ Eason, Charles; Miller, Aroha; Ogilvie, Shaun; Fairweather, Alastair (2011). "An updated review of the toxicology and ecotoxicology of sodium fluoroacetate (1080) in relation to its use as a pest control tool in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 35 (1): 1–20. http://newzealandecology.org/nzje/2968. 
  13. ↑ Marais, J. C. S. (1943). "The isolation of the toxic principle "K cymonate" from "Gifblaar", Dichapetalum cymosum". Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry 18: 203. 
  14. ↑ Marais, J. C. S. (1944). "Monofluoroacetic acid, the toxic principle of "gifblaar" Dichapetalum cymosum". Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry 20: 67. 
  15. ↑ Renner, W. (October 1904). "Native Poison, West Africa". Journal of the African Society 4 (XIII): 109–111. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a093857. 
  16. ↑ Power, F. B.; Tutin, F. (1906). "Chemical and Physiological Examination of the Fruit of Chailletia toxicaria". Journal of the American Chemical Society 28 (9): 1170–1183. doi:10.1021/ja01975a007. https://zenodo.org/record/1428878. 
  17. ↑ Vartiainen, T.; Kauranen, P. (1984). "The determination of traces of fluoroacetic acid by extractive alkylation, pentafluorobenzylation and capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry". Analytica Chimica Acta 157 (1): 91–97. doi:10.1016/S0003-2670(00)83609-0. Bibcode: 1984AcAC..157...91V. 
  18. ↑ "Sodium fluoroacetate (compound 1080) uptake by Puha, a culturally-important food plant". http://www.ecoresearch.co.nz/uploads/2/1/0/8/21081912/puha_1080_research_report.pdf. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Beasley, Michael (August 2002). "Guidelines for the Safe Use of Sodium Fluoroacetate (1080)" (PDF). New Zealand Occupational Safety & Health Service. http://www.business.govt.nz/worksafe/information-guidance/all-guidance-items/sodium-fluoroacetate-1080-guidelines-for-the-safe-use-of. 
  20. ↑ "Controlled Pesticides: Sodium Fluoroacetate (1080) in Pest Control". Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines Group. http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/acvm/publications/notes/1080-study-notes.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Leong, Lex Ee Xiang; Khan, Shahjalal; Davis, Carl K.; Denman, Stuart E.; McSweeney, Chris S. (December 2017). "Fluoroacetate in plants - a review of its distribution, toxicity to livestock and microbial detoxification" (in en). Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 8 (1): 55. doi:10.1186/s40104-017-0180-6. ISSN 2049-1891. PMID 28674607. 
  22. ↑ Proudfoot, A. T.; Bradberry, S. M.; Vale, J. A. (2006). "Sodium fluoroacetate poisoning". Toxicological Reviews 25 (4): 213–219. doi:10.2165/00139709-200625040-00002. PMID 17288493. 
  23. ↑ Timperley, Christopher M. (2000). "Highly-toxic fluorine compounds". Fluorine Chemistry at the Millennium. pp. 499–538. doi:10.1016/B978-008043405-6/50040-2. ISBN 9780080434056. 
  24. ↑ Gupta, R. (2007). Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-12-370467-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=NgMX__L3q40C&pg=PA556. Retrieved 2012-08-08. 
  25. ↑ Eason, C. T.; Frampton, C. M.; Henderson, R.; Thomas, M. D.; Morgan, D. R. (1993). "Sodium monofluoroacetate and alternative toxins for possum control". New Zealand Journal of Zoology 20 (3): 329–334. doi:10.1080/03014223.1993.10420354. ISSN 0301-4223. https://books.google.com/books?id=ACI4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA330. Retrieved 2010-07-02. "Sodium monofluoroacetate was readily absorbed and rapidly eliminated in all species: only traces were detectable in sheep muscle after 72-96 h". 
  26. ↑ Brent, J. (2005). Critical Care Toxicology. St. Louis: Mosby. p. 970. ISBN 978-0-8151-4387-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=WuA4LsWXXWEC&pg=PA970. Retrieved 2010-07-28. "Glycerol monoacetate, 0.1 to 0.5 mL/kg/h, as a Krebs cycle substrate replacement, has prolonged survival in a primate model, but it also may aggravate toxicity and seems to be effective only early in the course." 
  27. ↑ Goncharov N.V., Kuznetsov A.V., Glashkina L.M., Radilov A.S. Compositions and Methods for Treating Intoxications. United States Patent Application 20100249116, publication date 09/30/2010; see also: Goncharov N.V., Jenkins R.O., Radilov A.S. Toxicology of fluoroacetate: a review, with possible directions for therapy research // J.Appl.Toxicol.(2006)26:148-161
  28. ↑ Rippe, J. M.; Irwin, R. S. (2008). Irwin and Rippe's Intensive Care Medicine. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health / Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1666–1667. ISBN 978-0-7817-9153-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=ooH1nH81_h4C&pg=PA1666. Retrieved 2010-07-28. "General supportive measures are paramount and aimed at maintaining the airway, breathing, and circulation. Activated charcoal should be administered in all suspected ingestions presenting within 1 to 2 hours after ingestion. Seizures should be treated with benzodiazepines or barbiturates. Hypocalcemia and prolonged QTc intervals may require calcium and magnesium supplementation. Various treatments have been tested in animals [149,161-163]. The most useful agent appears to be glyceryl monoacetate, which provides excess acetate as a substrate for the TCA cycle. The clinical use of glyceryl monoacetate remains unproven, however." 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Leong, Lex Ee Xiang; Khan, Shahjalal; Davis, Carl K.; Denman, Stuart E.; McSweeney, Chris S. (December 2017). "Fluoroacetate in plants - a review of its distribution, toxicity to livestock and microbial detoxification". Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 8 (1): 55. doi:10.1186/s40104-017-0180-6. PMID 28674607. 
  30. ↑ Gregg, Keith; Hamdorf, Brenton; Henderson, Kerrin; Kopecny, Jan; Wong, Cheryl (September 1998). "Genetically Modified Ruminal Bacteria Protect Sheep from Fluoroacetate Poisoning". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64 (9): 3496–3498. doi:10.1128/AEM.64.9.3496-3498.1998. ISSN 1098-5336. PMID 9726903. Bibcode: 1998ApEnM..64.3496G. 
  31. ↑ "1080 Summary information". Miscellaneous Publication No. 011/2002. 2002. 
  32. ↑ "The use of 1080 for pest control – 4.1 Key facts". NZ Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/the-use-of-1080-for-pest-control/4-information-about-1080/4_1-key-facts/. 
  33. ↑ Speechley, Jane (15 November 2007). "1080 is not a humane poison: International journal publishes RSPCA paper". RSPCA. http://www.rspca.org.au/mediareleases/MRShow.asp?ID=131. 
  34. ↑ Twigg, Laurie E.; King, Dennis R. (1991). "The Impact of Fluoroacetate-Bearing Vegetation on Native Australian Fauna: A Review". Oikos (Nordic Society Oikos (Wiley Publishing)) 61 (3): 412–430. doi:10.2307/3545249. ISSN 0030-1299. Bibcode: 1991Oikos..61..412T.  ISSN 1600-0706.
  35. ↑ Townsend, Ian (4 May 2014). "The great Tasmanian fox hunt". Australian Broadcasting Commission. http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2014-05-04/5418860. 
  36. ↑ "Full-on blitz for foxes". The Mercury (Tasmania). 23 September 2011. http://www.themercury.com.au/article/2011/09/23/263721_tasmania-news.html. 
  37. ↑ Paull, John (2011). "Environmental Management in Tasmania: Better off Dead?". Island Futures. Global Environmental Studies. Tokyo: Springer Japan. pp. 153–168. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53989-6_12. ISBN 978-4-431-53988-9. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fa780987-846c-4ab3-bc66-513ce8069f8c. 
  38. ↑ "How a wallaby and 1080 poison don't mix!". http://www.kangaroo-protection-coalition.com/wallaby-poison.html. 
  39. ↑ "The World Today – Animal welfare groups angered by King Island wallaby cull". abc.net.au. 25 August 2023. http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1438832.htm. 
  40. ↑ Landline By Prue Adams (2016-06-11). "Wild dogs: First new bait released in 50 years to tackle Australia's rural pest". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-11/papp-bait-released-to-tackle-wild-dog-scourge/7499206. 
  41. ↑ Perpitch, Nicolas (2023-06-28). "Deadly tool that sprays feral cats with toxic gel unveiled as part of Australia-first strategy to save wildlife" (in en-AU). ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-06-28/deadly-tool-unveiled-as-part-of-crackdown-in-australia-first/102535300. 
  42. ↑ "Bats/pekapeka". Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/bats-pekapeka/. 
  43. ↑ Green, W. (July 2004). "The use of 1080 for pest control". The Animal Health Board and The Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/use-of-1080-04.pdf. 
  44. ↑ Harper, Paul; Neems, Jeff (2009-09-19). "Protesters stop Coromandel 1080 drop". Waikato Times. Fairfax New Zealand Ltd. http://www.stuff.co.nz/waikato-times/news/2881440/Protesters-stop-Coromandel-1080-drop. 
  45. ↑ Kolbert, Elizabeth (23 December 2014). "The Big Kill: New Zealand's crusade to rid itself of mammals". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/12/22/big-kill. 
  46. ↑ "Wildlife Services Factsheet May 2010: The Livestock Protection Collar". U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/content/printable_version/fs_livestock_protection_collar.pdf. "Coyotes are the leading cause of predation losses for sheep and goat producers. … The LPC is registered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a restricted use product." 
  47. ↑ Leydet, F. (1988). The coyote: defiant songdog of the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-8061-2123-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=7KIfDNJLyuwC&pg=PA110. Retrieved 2010-07-30. "So it was not humaneness that convinced PARC that Compound 1080 was the ideal tool for coyote control. Sodium fluoroacetate had other attractions. It was cheap, and tiny amounts were effective: all you needed was sixteen grams, costing twenty-eight cents, to treat 1000 pounds of horsemeat, or enough, theoretically, to kill 11,428 coyotes at 1.4 ounces of bait meat per lethal dose." 
  48. ↑ "Sodium Fluoroacetate: Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) Fact Sheet". Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/3073fact.pdf. "Sodium fluoroacetate is an acute toxicant predacide which is used against coyotes which prey on sheep and goats. … Sodium fluoroacetate is a restricted use pesticide which may be used only by trained, certified applicators and which is only registered for use in livestock protection collars. Sodium fluoroacetate will retain the restricted use classification imposed by the Agency in 1978 due to its high acute toxicity and the need for highly specialized applicator training. … Development and use of sodium fluoroacetate as a predacide and rodenticide in the U.S. began in the 1940s prior to the 1947 enactment of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act by which requirements for federal registration of pesticide products were instituted. In 1964 and again in 1971, the use of poisons to control predatory mammals were reviewed by selected committees. In 1972, EPA cancelled all registered predator control uses of sodium fluoroacetate, sodium cyanide, and strychnine. In 1977, the US Department of the Interior (USDI) applied for an Experimental Use Permit (EUP) to investigate the potential risks and benefits associated with the use of sodium fluoroacetate in "toxic collars" which would be placed on the necks of sheep and goats. … In 1981, EPA was petitioned by the USDI and livestock interests to revisit the 1972 predacide cancellation decision with respect to sodium fluoroacetate. … In 1985, EPA granted a registration to USDI for a toxic collar product which was transferred in 1986 to the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). … The rodenticide uses of sodium fluoroacetate were cancelled due to lack of supporting data. In 1989, all "special local needs" registrations issued under § 24(c) of FIFRA were cancelled, and all pending applications for Federal registration were denied by August 1990." 
  49. ↑ "Methods of pest control: Animal pests". 2006-08-01. http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/methods-of-control/1080-poison-for-pest-control/#othercountries. 
  50. ↑ Moran, S. 1991. Toxicity of sodium fluoroacetate and zinc phosphide wheat grain baits to Microtus guentheri and Meriones tristrami. EPPO Bulletin 21: 73-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2338.1991.tb00456.x
  51. ↑ Eason, C. T. (2002). Technical Review of Sodium Monofluoroacetate (1080) Toxicology. Animal Health Board. ISBN 978-0-478-09346-9. http://www.ahb.org.nz/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=BUUHSpPIJ5s%3D&tabid=316. Retrieved 2011-09-30. 
  52. ↑ Suren, A.; Lambert, P. (2006). "Do toxic baits containing sodium fluroacetate (1080) affect fish and invertebrate communities when they fall into streams?". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 40 (4): 531–546. doi:10.1080/00288330.2006.9517443. Bibcode: 2006NZJMF..40..531S. http://www.mendeley.com/research/toxic-baits-containing-sodium-fluroacetate-1080-affect-fish-invertebrate-communities-fall-streams/. 
  53. ↑ Eason, C. T.; Temple, W. (2002). Water sampling for sodium fluoroacetate (1080) – how much is enough?. 32. ISBN 978-0-478-09346-9. http://www.1080facts.co.nz/upload/download_files/water%20sampling.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-30. 
  54. ↑ Unpublished data, Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Investigations of 1080 leaching and transport in the environment". http://www.tbfree.org.nz/Portals/0/NIWA's%20Suren%20report%20into%201080%20leaching%20into%20soil%20and%20water%20.pdf. 
  56. ↑ Eason, C. T.; Wright, G. R.; Fitzgerald, H. (1992). "Sodium Monofluoroacetate (1080) Water-Residue Analysis after Large-Scale Possum Control". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 16 (1): 47–49. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7105/4066_Easonetal_s13395.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-30. 
  57. ↑ "Evaluating the use of 1080 – Predators, poisons, and silent forests". New Zealand: Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. 2011. http://www.pce.parliament.nz/assets/Uploads/PCE-1080.pdf. 
  58. ↑ "Tongariro Forest whio". New Zealand: Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/birds/wetland-birds/blue-duck-whio/docs-work/tongariro-forest-whio/. 
  59. ↑ Innes, J.; Nugent, G.; Prime, K.; Spurr, E. B. (2004). "Responses of kukupa (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) and other birds to mammal pest control at Motatau, Northland". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 28 (1): 73–81. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7074/3460_Innesetal2004ku_s10649.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-23. 
  60. ↑ "Kiwi: New Zealand native land birds". 2012-05-03. http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kiwi/. 
  61. ↑ MacKay, Scot (27 April 2011). "1080 drop boosts Waitutu kaka: DOC". The Southland Times. http://www.stuff.co.nz/southland-times/news/4930340/1080-drop-boosts-Waitutu-kaka-DOC. 
  62. ↑ Seaton, R.; Holland, J. D.; Minot, E. O.; Springett, B. P. (2009). "Breeding Success of New Zealand Falcons (Falco novaeseelandiae) in a Pine Plantation". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 33 (1): 32–39. http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/new_issues/NZJEcol33_1_32.pdf. 
  63. ↑ Powlesland, R. G.; Knegtmans, J. W.; Styche, A. (2000). "Mortality of North Island tomtits (Petroica macrocephala toitoi) caused by aerial 1080 possum control operations, 1997–98, Pureora Forest Park". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 24 (2): 161–168. http://www.nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol24_2_161.pdf. 
  64. ↑ "The effect of aerial application of 1080 cereal baits for possum control on South Island Robin (Petroica australis) in the Silver Peaks, Dunedin". New Zealand: TBFree. http://tbfree.org.nz/Portals/0/Research/1080%20-%20robin%20report_final-revised.pdf. 
  65. ↑ Powlesland, R. G.; Knegtmans, J. W.; Marshall, I. S. J. (1999). "Costs and Benefits of Aerial 1080 Possum Control Operation Using Carrot Baits to North Island Robins (Petroica australis longipes), Pureora Forest Park". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 23 (2): 149–159. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7074/3474_Powleslandetal__s10663.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-23. 
  66. ↑ "Land conservation publications". 2006-08-15. http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/land-and-freshwater/land/operation-ark/. 
  67. ↑ "Seven keas dead in wake of 1080 work". Otago Daily Times. 12 September 2011. http://www.odt.co.nz/regions/west-coast/177187/seven-keas-dead-wake-1080-work. 
  68. ↑ "Wildlife health: Our work". 2009-09-14. http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/wildlife-health/nz-wildlife-diseases/#lead. 
  69. ↑ Kemp, Joshua R. (2019). "Kea survival during aerial poisoning for rat and possum control". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 43. doi:10.20417/nzjecol.43.2. https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/3351. 
  70. ↑ "Evaluating the use of 1080 : Predators, poisons and silent forests". http://www.pce.parliament.nz/assets/Uploads/PCE-1080.pdf. 
  71. ↑ JC Mcilroy; DR King; AJ Oliver (1985). "The Sensitivity of Australian Animals to 1080 Poison VIII. Amphibians and Reptiles". Wildlife Research 12: 113. doi:10.1071/wr9850113. 
  72. ↑ McIlroy, J.C. 1992: Secondary poisoning hazards associated with 1080-treated carrot baiting campaigns against rabbits, 1992
  73. ↑ Perfect, A. J.; Bell, B. D. (2005). "Assessment of the impact of 1080 on the native frogs Leiopelma archeyi and L. hochstetteri". DOC Research & Development Series 209. http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/drds209.pdf. 
  74. ↑ Middlemiss, Anita (October 1995). Predation of lizards by feral house cats (Felis catus) and ferrets (Mustela furo) in the tussock grassland of Otago. University of Otago (Masters). hdl:10523/126. S2CID 83730007. Accessed 2017-04-18.
  75. ↑ Gillies, Craig (2001). "Advances in New Zealand mammalogy 1990–2000: House cat". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand (Royal Society of New Zealand (T&F)) 31 (1): 205–218. doi:10.1080/03014223.2001.9517648. ISSN 0303-6758. Bibcode: 2001JRSNZ..31..205G. 
  76. ↑ Biological invasions in New Zealand. Ecological Studies. 86. Berlin New York: Springer. 2006. pp. XXIV+459+38fig.+28t. ISBN 978-3-540-30022-9. OCLC 262692884.  ISBN 978-3-540-30023-6.
  77. ↑ Norbury, Grant (2001). "Conserving Dryland Lizards by Reducing Predator-Mediated Apparent Competition and Direct Competition with Introduced Rabbits". Journal of Applied Ecology 38 (6): 1350–1361. doi:10.1046/j.0021-8901.2001.00685.x. Bibcode: 2001JApEc..38.1350N. 
  78. ↑ Possums and possum control; effects on lowland forest ecosystems – Atkinson et al, 1995: http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sfc001.pdf
  79. ↑ "Conservation publications: Science publications". 2006-08-03. http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/the-use-of-1080-for-pest-control/4-information-about-1080/4_1-key-facts/. 
  80. ↑ Spurr, E. B. (1996). "Impacts of 1080-poisoning for possum control on non-target invertebrates". New Zealand: Department of Conservation. http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/sfc021.pdf. 
  81. ↑ Booth, L. H.; Wickstrom, M. L. (1999). "The Toxicity of Sodium Monofluoroacetate (1080) to Huneria striata, a New Zealand Native Ant". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 23 (2): 161–165. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/PageFiles/7099/3451_BoothWickstrom__s10640.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-24. 
  82. ↑ Eason, C. T.; Gooneratne, R.; Wright, G.; Pierce, R.; Frampton, C. M. (1993). "The fate of sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) in water, mammals, and invertebrates". Proceedings of 46th New Zealand Plant Protection Society Conference. pp. 297–301. 
  83. ↑ "Methods of pest control: Animal pests". 2006-08-01. http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/methods-of-control/1080-poison-for-pest-control/videos-about-1080/1080-poison-helps-native-snails/. 
  84. ↑ "Insects and Spiders of New Zealand/Aotearoa". http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/education/insects_spiders/. 
  85. ↑ Cowan, P. E.; Moeed, A. (1987). "Invertebrates in the diet of brushtail possums, Trichosurus vulpecula, in lowland podocarp/broadleaf forest, Orongorongo Valley, Wellington, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology 14 (2): 163–177. doi:10.1080/03014223.1987.10422987. ISSN 0301-4223. https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hh_dgF8cTAC&pg=PA163. 
  86. ↑ "4. – Possums – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/possums/page-4. 

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