Biology:List of psychoactive plants
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Short description: List of plant species with reported psychoactive properties
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A list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as entheogens for millennia.[1][2]
The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.
Cannabinoids
Species of the genus Cannabis, known colloquially as marijuana, including Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica, are popular psychoactive plants that are often used medically and recreationally. The principal psychoactive substance in Cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), contains no nitrogen, unlike many (but not all) other psychoactive substances[lower-alpha 1] and is not an indole, tryptamine or phenethylamine. THC is just one of more than 100 identified cannabinoid compounds in Cannabis, which also include cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD).
Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.
The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of medical and recreational cannabis.
Tryptamines
_Delosperma_cooperi_-_Flower.jpg)
Many of the psychedelic plants contain dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an MAOI, and must be extremely concentrated in order to be vaporized.
"Species, Alkaloid content, where given, refers to dried material"
- Fittonia albivenis , a common ornamental plant from South America.
- Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]
- Delosperma acuminatum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4] * Delosperma cooperi, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma ecklonis, DMT[4]
- Delosperma esterhuyseniae, DMT[4]
- Delosperma hallii, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma harazianum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma harazianum
Shibam, DMT[4]
- Delosperma harazianum
- Delosperma hirtum, DMT[4]
- Delosperma hallii
aff. litorale
- Delosperma hallii
- Delosperma lydenbergense, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma nubigenum, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma pageanum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma pergamentaceum, Traces of DMT[4]
- Delosperma tradescantioides, DMT[4]
- Prestonia amazonica: DMT[5]
- Voacanga africana: Up to 10% Iboga alkaloids[6]
- Erythroxylum pungens: DMT[7]
Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
- Acacia acuminata, Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of dimethyltryptamine in bark & leaf[8] Also, harman, tryptamine, NMT, other alkaloids in leaf. * Acacia alpina, Active principles in leaf[9] * Acaciella angustissima, β-methyl-phenethylamine,[10] NMT and DMT in leaf (1.1-10.2 ppm)[11]
- Vachellia aroma, Tryptamine alkaloids.[12] Significant amount of tryptamine in the seeds.[13]
- Acacia auriculiformis, 5-MeO-DMT in stem bark[14]
- Acacia baileyana, 0.02% tryptamine and β-carbolines, in the leaf, Tetrahydroharman[15]
- Acacia beauverdiana, Psychoactive[16] Ash used in Pituri.[17]
- Senegalia berlandieri, DMT, phenethylamine, mescaline, nicotine[18]
- Vachellia caven, Psychoactive[6]
- Acacia colei, DMT[19]
- Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[20][21][22]
- Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[9] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide[23]
- Vachellia cornigera, Psychoactive,[6] Tryptamines[24] DMT according to C. Rastch.
- Acacia cultriformis, Tryptamine, in the leaf, stem[9] and seeds.[13] Phenethylamine in leaf and seeds[13]
- Acacia cuthbertsonii, Psychoactive[6]
- Acacia decurrens, Psychoactive,[6] but less than 0.02% alkaloids[15]
- Acacia delibrata, Psychoactive[16]
- Acacia falcata, Psychoactive,[16] but less than 0.02% alkaloids[15]
- Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[25] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[26] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[27] Alkaloids are present in the bark[28] and leaves.[29]
- Acacia floribunda, Tryptamine, phenethylamine,[30] in flowers[13] other tryptamines,[31] DMT,tryptamine,NMT 0.3–0.4% phyllodes.[32]
- Acacia georginae, Psychoactive,[6] plus deadly toxins
- Vachellia horrida, Psychoactive[6]
- Acacia implexa, Psychoactive[33]
- Senegalia laeta, DMT, in the leaf[9]
- Acacia longifolia, 0.2% tryptamine in bark, leaves, some in flowers, phenylethylamine in flowers,[30] 0.2% DMT in plant.[34] Histamine alkaloids.[15]
- Acacia sophorae, Tryptamine in leaves, bark[13]
- Acacia macradenia, Tryptamine[13]
- Acacia maidenii, 0.6% NMT and DMT in about a 2:3 ratio in the stem bark, both present in leaves[9]
- Acacia mangium, Psychoactive[6]
- Acacia melanoxylon, DMT, in the bark and leaf,[35] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids[15]
- Senegalia mellifera, DMT, in the leaf[9]
- Vachellia nilotica, DMT, in the leaf[9]
- Acacia neurophylla DMT in bark, Harman in leaf.[36]
- Acacia obtusifolia, Tryptamine, DMT, NMT, other tryptamines,[37] 0.4–0.5% in dried bark,0.15–0.2% in leaf, 0.07% in branch tips.[38]
- Vachellia oerfota, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[39] NMT
- Acacia penninervis, Psychoactive[16]
- Acacia phlebophylla, 0.3% DMT in leaf, NMT[9]
- Senegalia polyacantha, DMT in leaf[9] and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
- Senegalia polyacantha ssp. campylacantha, Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark[40]
- Senegalia rigidula: Phenethylamine, tryptamine, tyramine, and β-Methylphenethylamine.[41]
- Acacia sassa, Psychoactive[6]
- Vachellia schaffneri, β-methyl-phenethylamine, Phenethylamine[42]
- Senegalia senegal, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[9] NMT, other tryptamines. DMT in plant,[26] DMT in bark.[13]
- Vachellia seyal, DMT, in the leaf.[9] Ether extracts about 1–7% of the dried leaf mass.[27]
- Vachellia sieberiana, DMT, in the leaf[9]
- Acacia simplex, DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark, 0.81% DMT in bark, MMT[9][43]
- Vachellia tortilis, DMT, NMT, and other tryptamines[33]
- Acacia vestita, Tryptamine, in the leaf and stem,[9] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids[15]
- Acacia victoriae, tryptamines, 5-MeO-alkyltryptamine[13]
- List of acacia species having little or no alkaloids in the material sampled:[15]
(0% C 0.02%, Concentration of alkaloids) - Pseudalbizzia inundata leaves contain DMT.[6]
- Anadenanthera colubrina, Bufotenin, Beans,[44][45] Bufotenin oxide, Beans,[44] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Beans,[44][45] pods,[44]
- Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil – Bufotenin and Dimethyltryptamine have been isolated from the seeds and seed pods, 5-MeO-DMT from the bark of the stems.[46] The seeds were found to contain 12.4% bufotenine, 0.06% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.06% DMT.[47]
- Anadenanthera peregrina,
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2,9-dimethyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[48] 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2-methyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[45] 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, Bark,[45] 5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine, Bark,[45] Bufotenin, plant,[45] beans,[44] Bufotenin N-oxide, Fruit,[45] beans,[44] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine-oxide, Fruit[45][49]
- Anadenanthera peregrina var. peregrina, Bufotenine is in the seeds.[50]
- Desmanthus illinoensis, 0–0.34% DMT in root bark, highly variable.[51] Also NMT, N-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, 2-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, and gramine (toxic).[52]
- Desmanthus leptolobus, 0.14% DMT in root bark, more reliable than D. illinoensis[51]
- Desmodium caudatum[53] (syn. Ohwia caudata), Roots: 0.087% DMT,
- Desmodium racemosum, 5-MeO-DMT[6]
- Desmodium triflorum, 0.0004% DMT-N-oxide, roots,[54] less in stems[54] and trace in leaves.[54]
- Lespedeza capitata[6]
- Lespedeza bicolor, DMT, Lespedamine,[55] and 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and roots[56]
- Lespedeza bicolor var. japonica, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6] in leaves and root bark
- Mimosa ophthalmocentra, Dried root: DMT 1.6%, NMT 0.0012% and hordenine 0.0065%[57]
- Mimosa scabrella, tryptamine, NMT, DMT and N-methyltetrahydrocarboline in bark[58]
- Mimosa tenuiflora (syn. "Mimosa hostilis"), 1-1.7% DMT (dry root bark).[59]
- Mimosa verrucosa, DMT[60] in root bark
- Mucuna pruriens, the seeds of the plant contain about 3.1–6.1% L-DOPA.[61]
- Petalostylis casseoides, 0.4–0.5% tryptamine, DMT, etc. in leaves and stems[56]
- Petalostylis labicheoides var. casseoides, DMT[6] in leaves and stems; 0.4–0.5% alkaloids in leaves and stems;[62] Tryptamines in leaves and stems, MAO's up to 0.5%[63] * Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), DMT;[6] 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT[56] DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers;
- Erythrina flabelliformis, other Erythrina species, seeds contain the alkaloids erysodin and erysovinCite error: Closing
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- Nectandra megapotamica, NMT[65]
- Diplopterys cabrerana: McKenna et al. (1984) assayed and found the leaves contain 0.17% DMT[66]
- Horsfieldia superba: 5-MeO-DMT,[56] Horsfiline,[67] and beta-carbolines[62]
- Iryanthera macrophylla: 5-MeO-DMT in bark;[56]
- Iryanthera ulei: 5-MeO-DMT in bark[6]
- Osteophloem platyspermum: DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark
- Virola calophylla, Leaves 0.149% DMT, leaves 0.006% MMT 5-MeO-DMT in bark[68]
- Virola calophylloidea, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6]
- Virola carinata, DMT in leaves; DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6]
- Virola cuspidata, DMT[63]
- Virola divergens, DMT[6] in leaves
- Virola elongata(syn. Virola theiodora), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6] in bark, roots, leaves and flowers
- Virola melinonii, DMT in bark; DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6]
- Virola multinervia, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6] in bark and roots
- Virola pavonis, DMT[6] in leaves
- Virola peruviana, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT;[6] 5-MeO-DMT, traces of DMT and 5-MeO-tryptamine in bark
- Virola rufula, Alkaloids in bark and root, 95% of which is MeO-DMT[69] 0.190% 5-MeO-DMT in bark, 0.135% 5-MeO-DMT in root, 0.092% DMT in leaves.
- Virola sebifera, The bark contains 0.065% to 0.25% alkaloids, most of which are DMT and 5-MeO-DMT.[70]
- Virola venosa, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[6] in roots, leaves DMT
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Some Graminae (grass) species contain gramine, which can cause brain damage, other organ damage, central nervous system damage and death in sheep.[71]
- Arundo donax, 0.0057% DMT in dried rhizome, no stem, 0.026% bufotenine, 0.0023% 5-MeO-MMT[72]
- Phalaris aquatica, 0.0007–0.18% Total alkaloids,[73] 0.100% DMT,[74] 0.022% 5-MeO-DMT,[74] 0.005% 5-OH-DMT[74]
- Phalaris arundinacea, 0.0004–0.121% Total alkaloids[73]
- Phalaris coerulescens, Coerulescine and 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-β-carboline in rhizome.[75]
- Phragmites australis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine and gramine in the rhizome.[76]
None of the above alkaloids are said to have been found in Phalaris californica, Phalaris canariensis, Phalaris minor and hybrids of P. arundinacea together with P. aquatica.[73]
- Psychotria carthagenensis, 0.2% average DMT in dried leaves.[77]
- Psychotria colorata, Presence of mu opioid receptor(MOR) agonist and NMDA antagonist: hodgkinsine, psychotridine. Also mentioned in The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications.[78]
- Psychotria expansa, DMT[63]
- Psychotria forsteriana, DMT[63]
- Psychotria insularum, DMT[63]
- Psychotria poeppigiana,[79] DMT[63]
- Psychotria rostrata, DMT[63]
- Psychotria rufipilis, DMT[63]
- Psychotria viridis, DMT 0.1–0.61% dried mass.[80]
- Dictyoloma incanescens, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves,[69] 0.04% 5-MeO-DMT in bark[56]
- Dutaillyea drupacea, > 0.4% 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[33]
- Dutaillyea oreophila, 5-MeO-DMT[6] in leaves
- Tetradium ruticarpum (syn. Evodia rutaecarpa), 5-MeO-DMT[6] in leaves, fruit and roots
- Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[62]
- Pilocarpus organensis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[83] (Might also contain pilocarpine)
- Vepris ampody, up to 0.2% DMT in leaves and branches[56]
- Zanthoxylum arborescens, traces of DMT;[6] DMT in leaves
- Citrus limon, DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaves[84][85]
- Citrus sinesis, DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative[84][85]
- Citrus bergamia, DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative[84][85]
- Mandarin orange, traces of N-methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf.[86][85]
- Chinotto Tree, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf[86][85]
- Citrus medica, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf[86][85]
Phenethylamines
MESCALINE CACTI
Species, Alkaloid Content (Fresh) – Alkaloid Content (Dried)
- Coryphantha contains various phenethylamine alkaloids including macromerine, coryphanthine, O-methyl-candicine, corypalmine, and N-methyl-corypalmine.[87][88]
- Cylindropuntia echinocarpa (syn. Opuntia echinocarpa), Mescaline 0.01%, DMPEA 0.01%, 4-hydroxy-3-5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 0.01%[89]
- Cylindropuntia spinosior (syn. Opuntia spinosior),[90] Mescaline 0.00004%, 3-methoxytyramine 0.001%, tyramine 0.002%, 3-4-dimethoxyphenethylamine.[89]
- Echinopsis lageniformis (syns Echinopsis scopulicola, Trichocereus bridgesii), Mescaline > 0.025%,[91] also DMPEA < 1%, 3-methoxytyramine < 1%, tyramine < 1%; Mescaline 2%[92]
- Echinopsis macrogona (syn. Trichocereus macrogonus), > 0.01–0.05% Mescaline[93]
File:Echinopsis pachanoi (7996941451).jpg Echinopsis pachanoi (syn. Trichocereus pachanoi), Mescaline 0.006–0.12%, 0.05% Average; Mescaline 0.01%–2.375%Echinopsis pachanoi - Echinopsis peruviana (syn. Trichocereus peruvianus), Mescaline 0.0005%–0.12%; Mescaline
- Echinopsis spachiana (syn. Trichocereus spachianus), Mescaline;[89] Mescaline[89]
- Echinopsis tacaquirensis subsp. taquimbalensis (syn. Trichocereus taquimbalensis),[94] [95] > 0.005–0.025% mescaline[93]
- Echinopsis terscheckii (syn. Trichocereus terscheckii, Trichocereus werdemannianus)[96] > 0.005–0.025% Mescaline;[93] mescaline 0.01%–2.375%[97]
- Lophophora williamsii (Peyote), 0.4% Mescaline;[98] 3–6% Mescaline[89]
- Opuntia acanthocarpa Mescaline[99]
OTHER
Eria Jarens- N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine
Beta-carbolines
Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive, anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[100]
- Amsonia tabernaemontana, harman[6]
- Aspidosperma exalatum, beta-carbolines[101]
- Aspidosperma polyneuron, beta-carbolines[101]
- Apocynum cannabinum, harmalol[6]
- Ochrosia nakaiana, harman[6]
- Pleiocarpa mutica, beta-carbolines[101]
- Calycanthus occidentalis, harman;[6] Harmine
Chenopodiaceae
- Guiera senegalensis, tetrahydroharmine;[6] Harman, etc.
- Carex brevicollis, harmine, etc.[6]
- Carex parva, beta-carbolines[101]
- Elaeagnus angustifolia, harman, etc.[6]
- Elaeagnus commutata, beta-carbolines[101]
- Elaeagnus hortensis, tetrahydroharman, etc.[6]
- Elaeagnus orientalis, tetrahydroharman[6]
- Elaeagnus spinosa, tetrahydroharman[6]
- Hippophae rhamnoides, harman, etc.[6]
- Shepherdia argentea, tetrahydroharmol[6]
- Shepherdia canadensis, tetrahydroharmol[6]
Gramineae
- Arundo donax, tetrahydroharman, etc.[6]
- Festuca arundinacea, harman, etc.[6]
- Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass), harman, etc.[6]
- Phalaris aquatica, beta-carbolines[101]
- Phalaris arundinacea, beta-carbolines[101]
- Nectandra megapotamica, beta-carbolines[101]
Leguminosae
- Acacia baileyana, tetrahydroharman[6]
- Acacia complanata, tetrahydroharman,[6] etc.
- Burkea africana, harman, etc.[6]
- Desmodium gangeticum, beta-carbolines[101]
- Desmodium gyrans, beta-carbolines[101]
- Mucuna pruriens, 6-methoxyharman, dihydroharman, harman[6]
- Petalostylis labicheoides, tetrahydroharman; MAOs up to 0.5%[63]
- Prosopis nigra, harmalicin, harman, etc.[6]
- Shepherdia pulchellum, beta-carbolines[101]
- Strychnos melinoniana, beta-carbolines[101]
- Strychnos usambarensis, harman[101]
- Banisteriopsis argentia, 5-methoxytetrahydroharman, (−)-N(6)-methoxytetrahydroharman, dimethyltryptamine-N(6)-oxide[10]
- Banisteriopsis caapi, Harmine 0.31–0.84%,[102] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[103] 5-MeO-DMT in bark[104]
- Banisteriopsis inebrians, beta-carbolines[101]
- Banisteriopsis lutea, harmine, telepathine[10]
- Banisteriopsis metallicolor, harmine, telepathine[10]
- Banisteriopsis muricata, harmine up to 6%, harmaline up to 4%, plus DMTCite error: Closing
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- Passiflora actinia, harman[6]
- Passiflora alata, harman[6]
- Passiflora alba, harman[6]
- Passiflora bryonoides, harman[6]
- Passiflora caerulea, harman[6]
- Passiflora capsularis, harman[6]
- Passiflora decaisneana, harman[6]
- Passiflora edulis, harman,[6] 0–7001 ppm[26] in fruit
- Passiflora eichleriana, harman[6]
- Passiflora foetida, harman[6]
- Passiflora incarnata (with bee), harmine, harmaline, harman, etc. 0.03%.[105] Alkaloids in rind of fruit 0.25%[105]
- Passiflora quadrangularis, harman[6]
- Passiflora ruberosa, harman[6]
- Passiflora subpeltata, harman[6]
- Passiflora warmingii, harman[6]
- Calligonum minimum, beta-carbolines[101]
- Leptactinia densiflora, tetrahydroharmine,[6] etc.
- Ophiorrhiza japonica, harman[6]
- Pauridiantha callicarpoides, harman[6]
- Pauridiantha dewevrei, harman[6]
- Pauridiantha lyalli, harman[6]
- Pauridiantha viridiflora, harman[6]
- Simira klugei, harman[6]
- Simira rubra, harman[6]
- Borreria verticillata, beta-carbolines[101]
- Leptactinia densiflora, beta-carbolines[101]
- Nauclea diderrichii, beta-carbolines[101]
- Ophiorrhiza japonica, beta-carbolines[101]
- Pauridiantha callicarpoides, beta-carbolines[101]
- Pauridiantha dewevrei, beta-carbolines[101]
- Pauridiantha yalli, neta-carbolines[101]
- Pauridiantha viridiflora, Beta-carbolines[101]
- Pavetta lanceolata, beta-carbolines[101]
- Psychotria carthagenensis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Psychotria viridis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Simira klugei, beta-carbolines[101]
- Simira rubra, beta-carbolines[101]
- Uncaria attenuata, beta-carbolines[101]
- Uncaria canescens, beta-carbolines[101]
- Uncaria orientalis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Euodia leptococca beta-carboline[62]
- Araliopsis tabouensis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Flindersia laevicarpa, beta-carbolines[101]
- Xanthoxylum rhetsa, beta-carbolines[101]
- Chrysophyllum lacourtianum, norharman etc.[6]
- Ailanthus malabarica, beta-carbolines.[101] (See also Nag Champa)
- Perriera madagascariensis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Picrasma ailanthoides, beta-carbolines[101]
- Picrasma crenata, beta-carbolines[101]
- Picrasma excelsa, beta-carbolines[101]
- Picrasma javanica, beta-carbolines[101]
- Vestia foetida, (Syn V. lycioides) beta-carbolines[101]
- Grewia mollis, beta-carbolines[101]
- Fagonia cretica, harman[6]
- Nitraria schoberi, beta-carbolines[101]
- Peganum harmala, (Syrian Rue), The seeds contain about 2–6% alkaloids, most of which is harmaline.[106] Peganum harmala is also an abortifacient.
- Peganum nigellastrum, harmine[107]
- Tribulus terrestris, harmine etc.;[6] Harman
- Zygophyllum fabago, harmine etc.;[6] Harman
Opiates
Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their esters and salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.
An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.
In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.
The plant contains a latex that thickens into opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids.[6] The main psychoactive alkaloids are:
- Morphine: 3 to 20% in opium[6]
- Codeine 0.1 to 4% in opium[6]
- Thebaine 0.1 to 4% in opium[6]
- Noscapine 1 to 11% in opium[6]
- Oripavine
Laurelia novae-zelandiae ~ pukateine
- Cnidium officinale
Mitragynine
7-Hydroxymitragynine
- Mitragynine: Approx. 0.33% in dried leaves[6]
- 7-Hydroxymitragynine[108]
Picralima nitida
Akuammicine
Pericine
- Akuammine[109]
- Akuammicine[110]
- Pericine[111] It may also have convulsant effects.[112]
- Akuammiline
- Akuammidine
- N-Formylakuammiline
- Picraline
- Picraphylline
- Dihydroakuammine[113]
& Other alkaloids
Plants containing other psychoactive substances
| Substance(s) | Plant | Comments | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 150px |
150px |
Toxic.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
Alchornea floribunda | α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px 150px |
150px |
GABA uptake inhibitor,[117][118] stimulant.[119] | |||
| 150px |
150px | Used by Chinese residents of Mexico during the early 20th century as a legal substitute for opium and currently smoked as a marijuana substitute.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px
Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian Baby Woodrose) |
Seeds contain ergine (LSA) and isoergine (iso-LSA), often 50-150X the amounts found in Ipomoea violacea. LSA and iso-LSA are psychoactive and/or hallucinogenic.[120][121][122][123] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Also called "wormwood". GABA receptor antagonist.[124] | |||
| Quinoline & Aporphine alkaloids | 150px Asimina triloba (Paw Paw) |
Unknown | |||
| 150px 150px 150px Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, hyoscyamine) |
150px |
Commonly known as 'deadly nightshade'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[125] | |||
| 150px 150px 150px Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine) |
150px |
Commonly known as 'angel's trumpets'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[125] | |||
| File:Harmine structure.svg File:Brunfelsamidine.svg 150px Indole alkaloids (harmine, manacine, brunfelsamidine), Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine) |
150px | Known to cause delirium, sustained mental confusion, and possible blindness.[126] | |||
| Unknown | 150px
Calea zacatechichi |
Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or lucid dreams due to its properties as an oneirogen.[127] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Tea leaves, tea, native to Asia.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px
Catha edulis |
Khat, commonly chewed, produces a stimulant effect.[128] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
- | Unknown | 150px |
Commonly referred to as 'night-blooming jasmine', 'lady of the night', and 'poisonberry'. It has an unknown mechanism of action.[citation needed] |
| 150px |
150px |
Coffee beans, coffee, native to Africa.[131] | |||
| 150px |
150px Cola |
Cola or kola nut, traditional additive to cola, native to Africa.[citation needed] | |||
| Salviorin A | 150px | Trace amounts of Salviorin A have been discovered in a specific variety: Electric Lime | |||
| 150px | 150px
Corydalis solida, cava |
Bulbocapnine, Nantenine, Tetrahydropalmatine | |||
| 150px 150px Tropane alkaloids (Scopolamine, Atropine) |
150px | Also known as 'thorn apple', 'devil's trumpets', 'loco weed', and 'Jimson weed'. Scopolamine and Atropine are both anticholinergics[132][133] which produce hallucinogenic and deliriant effects. It has an extensive history of being used recreationally.[134] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Nicotine-like effects. partial agonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).[135] | |||
| Unknown | 150px Desfontainia spinosa |
Causes visions.[136] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Pituri | |||
| Unknown | 150px Entada rheedei |
African dream herb.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Ephedra | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Coca. Widely used illegal stimulant, produces hallucination in overdose, native to South America.[citation needed] | |||
| Unknown | 150px |
Nerve or mosaic plant, said to produce vision of eyeballs | |||
| 150px |
Galbulimima belgraveana | Galbulimima belgraveana is rich in alkaloids and twenty-eight alkaloids have been isolated including himbacine.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px | Hallucinogenic effects.[137] | |||
| 150px Possibly Cryogenine[citation needed] |
Heimia myrtifolia | Auditory | |||
| 150px Possibly Cryogenine[citation needed] |
150px |
- | 150px 150px |
150px |
Star of Bethlehem |
| 150px |
150px |
Saint John's wort | |||
| Tropane alkaloids | 150px |
Henbane | |||
| 150px 150px Caffeine, Theobromine, Dimethylxanthines |
150px |
Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Ergine and isoergine in seeds; up to 0.12% ergine total[139] Produces psychedelic effects. | |||
| Lactucarium | 150px | Lactucarium | |||
| 150px | 150px |
Lagochilin is thought to be responsible for the sedative, hypotensive and hemostatic effects of this plant.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px | Pukateine | |||
|
Coreximine, Reticuline |
150px Rollinia mucosa |
Corexamine inhibits the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase, which converts dopamine to norepinephrine.[140]Reticuline acts as a central nervous system depressant in rats and mice.[141] | |||
| 150px |
150px | Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px Leucas aspera |
Nicotine | |||
| 150px |
150px | Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine and several compounds. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)[citation needed][143] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Indian tobacco | |||
| Unknown | 150px | [6] | |||
| 150px 150px 150px Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine) |
150px |
Mandrake has deliriant and anticholinergic properties.[125] | |||
| 150px |
150px Some Mirabilis spp. |
Possibly contains ergine , a hallucinogen. | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Usually referred to as kratom. Has opioid-like and stimulant properties.[144] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Nutmeg | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Sacred lotus | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Catnip | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Tobacco. Can cause hallucinations in very large doses.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px | Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[145] Nymphaea caerulea is unrelated to Nelumbo nucifera the Sacred Lotus, with Nymphaea in the Nymphales, one of the oldest and most basal linegages of flowering plants and with Nelumbo in Proteales one of the core eudicots. Their morphological similarities being entirely convergent evolution, however they apparently have convergently evolved similar biochemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs.
These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical Lotophagi in Homer's Odyssey.
| |||
| 150px Ginsenosides |
150px |
Ginseng | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Opium. Widely used analgesic, native to the Old World.[146] | |||
| Unknown | 150px |
Narcotic and toxic when the root is consumed.[147] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist.[citation needed] | |||
| Unknown | 150px |
Indian warrior | |||
| 150px Kavalactones |
150px | An anxiolytic[148] and hypnotic.[149] Often advertised as a 'healthier' alternative to alcohol.[citation needed] | |||
| 150px |
150px Rivea corymbosa |
Seeds contain ergine, isoergine, lysergol, and turbicoryn; lysergic acid alkaloids up to 0.03%[150] Has psychedelic properties. | |||
| 150px |
150px | - | 150px Mesembrine |
150px |
Kanna[152][153] |
| 150px |
150px |
Known commonly as 'skullcaps'. Baicalein is a positive allosteric modulator of GABAA receptor.[154] | |||
| Unknown | 150px | S. brasiliensis poisoning is described as very similar to that of Cestrum laevigatum; a species used to induce hallucinations by the Krahô tribe for spiritual purposes.[155][156] | |||
| Unknown | 150px
Silene capensis |
Produces vivid dreams after smoking.[157] | |||
| Unknown | 150px | Anethole, Chavicol, Coumarin, Estragole, Isorhamnetin, Methyleugenol, Quercitin | |||
| 150px |
150px | Ibogaine in root bark. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[158][159] | |||
| 150px |
Tabernanthe orientalis |
Ibogaine in root leaves. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[158][159] | |||
| 150px 150px |
150px | Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[159] | |||
| 150px |
Tabernanthe pubescens |
Is a psychedelic and a dissociative. Contains ibogaine and similar alkaloids.[158][159] | |||
| 150px |
150px Tabernaemontana sp. |
Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[158][159] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Cocoa or cacao bean, chocolate, native to the Americas | |||
| 150px |
150px | Exhibits psychedelic and dissociative effects. Contains ibogaine, coronaridine, voacangine, apparicine, conoflorine, and 19-epi-voacangarine.[160] [161] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Possible sedative and anxiolytic effects. Valerenic acid is GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator,[162] and a 5-HT5A receptor partial agonist.[163] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Vincamine.[164] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Voacangine is similar in structure to ibogaine. It inhibits AChE.[165][166] | |||
| 150px |
150px |
Also contains phenanthrenes and dendrobine related alkaloids. | |||
| 150px 150px |
150px |
Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to cannabis.[168][169] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.[citation needed] |
See also
- Aztec entheogenic complex
- Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
- God in a Pill?
- Hallucinogenic fish
- Hallucinogenic plants in Chinese herbals
- List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
- List of entheogenic/hallucinogenic species
- List of plants used for smoking
- List of poisonous plants
- List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
- Louisiana State Act 159
- N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
- Psilocybin mushrooms
- Psychoactive cactus
- Psychoactive plant
Notes
- ↑ Other psychoactive compounds without nitrogen atoms include kavalactones and salvinorins, known from kava and Salvia divinorum, respectively.
References
- ↑ Sayin, H. Umit (2016). "Psychoactive Plants Used during Religious Rituals". Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse. Elsevier. pp. 17–28. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800634-4.00002-0. ISBN 978-0-12-800634-4.
- ↑ Kohek, Maja; Sánchez Avilés, Constanza; Romaní, Oriol; Bouso, José Carlos (2021). "Ancient psychoactive plants in a global village: The ritual use of cannabis in a self-managed community in Catalonia". International Journal of Drug Policy (Elsevier BV) 98. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103390. ISSN 0955-3959. PMID 34340169.
- ↑ Pachter, I. J.; Zacharias, D. E.; Rebeiro, O. (1959). "Indole Alkaloids of Acer saccharinum (the Silver Maple), Dictyoloma incanescens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis". Journal of Organic Chemistry 24 (9): 1285–1287. doi:10.1021/jo01091a032. Bibcode: 1959JOrgC..24.1285P.
- ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 "Trout's Notes on Some Other Succulents". http://www.entheogen.com/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,6/Itemid,42/.
- ↑ "Profiles of Psychedelic Drugs". paranoia.lycaeum.org. http://paranoia.lycaeum.org/psychedelics/tryptamines/dmt.info.
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.39 6.40 6.41 6.42 6.43 6.44 6.45 6.46 6.47 6.48 6.49 6.50 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.54 6.55 6.56 6.57 6.58 6.59 6.60 6.61 6.62 6.63 6.64 6.65 6.66 6.67 6.68 6.69 6.70 6.71 6.72 6.73 6.74 6.75 6.76 6.77 6.78 6.79 6.80 6.81 6.82 6.83 6.84 Rätsch, Christian (25 April 2005). The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications. Inner Traditions/Bear. ISBN 978-1-59477-662-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=Rs5rAwAAQBAJ&q=Magnolia+virginiana+psychoactive&pg=PT2377. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
- ↑ "Isolation, spectral characterization, molecular docking, and cytotoxic activity of alkaloids from Erythroxylum pungens O. E. Shulz". Phytochemistry 155: 12–18. November 2018. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.07.003. PMID 30056276. Bibcode: 2018PChem.155...12M.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia acuminata". leda.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=15928.
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 "Plants & Seeds > A > Acacia spp.". Shaman Australis Botanicals. http://shaman-australis.com.au/shop/index.php?cPath=21_26_72.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Glasby, John Stephen (1991). Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites. CRC Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-85066-423-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=te53VV5u8YMC&q=acacia+alkaloids&pg=RA1-PA2.
- ↑ Nutritive value assessment of the tropical shrub legume Acacia angustissima: anti-nutritional compounds and in vitro digestibility. Personal Authors: McSweeney, C. S., Krause, D. O., Palmer, B., Gough, J., Conlan, L. L., Hegarty, M. P.Author Affiliation: CSIRO Livestock Industries, Long Pocket Laboratories, 120 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly, Qld 4068, Australia. Document Title: Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2005 (Vol. 121) (No. 1/2) 175–190
- ↑ "Maya Ethnobotanicals – Ayahuasca, Rainforest Plants, Folklore, Incenses, Art & Visions". http://www.maya-ethnobotanicals.com/product_info.phtml/herbid_340/category_ayahuasca.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Black Panther. "Akacje". Herbarium.0–700.pl. http://herbarium.0-700.pl/Akacje.html.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia auriculiformis". Leda.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=15931.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Hegnauer, R. (1996-07-30). Caesalpinioideae und Mimosoideae. Springer. ISBN 978-3-7643-5165-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnboQBbw7EC&q=acacia+tryptamine&pg=PA336. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Australian Bush Food and Native Medicine Forum members. "Australian Bushfood (Bushtucker) and Native Medicine Forum". Bushfood.net. http://www.bushfood.net/viewtopic.php?p=3443.
- ↑ "Entheology.org – Preserving Ancient Knowledge". Entheology.org. http://www.entheology.org/edoto/anmviewer.asp?a=47.
- ↑ "Ask Dr. Shulgin Online September 26, 2001". Cognitiveliberty.org. http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/shulgin/adsarchive/acacia.htm.
- ↑ "Dr Karl's Q&A forum". Abc.net.au. http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/stn/q&a/notes/051027-9.htm.
- ↑ "comp phyto". Users.lycaeum.org. http://users.lycaeum.org/~mulga/acacia/comphy.html.
- ↑ "acacias and entheogens". Users.lycaeum.org. http://users.lycaeum.org/~mulga/acacia/entheo.html.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia complanata". Users.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=15796.
- ↑ NMR spectral assignments of a new chlorotryptamine alkaloid and its analogues from Acacia confusa Malcolm S. Buchanan, Anthony R. Carroll, David Pass, Ronald J. Quinn Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry Volume 45, Issue 4, pp. 359–361. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
- ↑ "Naturheilpraxis – Fachforum – Die Heilkraft der Akazien – Ein einführender Überblick". 5 January 2010. http://www.naturheilpraxis.de/exclusiv/nh-online/2005/nhp05/a_nh-ff02.html.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia cultriformis". Leda.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=15965.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "Plant Choices – Phytochemeco Databases". Ars-grin.gov. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/plants.html.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Vivid Interactive and Design. "Wattle Seed Workshop Proceedings". http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/03-024.pdf.
- ↑ "www.bpi.da.gov.ph". http://www.bpi.da.gov.ph/Publications/mp/pdf/a/aroma.pdf.
- ↑ "Acacia farnesiana". Hort.purdue.edu. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_farnesiana.html.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Hegnauer, Robert (1994). Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. Springer. p. 500. ISBN 978-3-7643-2979-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=9fDv1RYqIRkC&q=chemotaxonomie+der+pflanzen.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia floribunda". leda.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=16001.
- ↑ Voogelbreinder, S. "Garden Of Eden" 2009
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 "Lista över hallucinogena växter, svampar och djur". Wiki.magiskamolekyler.org. http://wiki.magiskamolekyler.org/index.php?title=Lista_%c3%b6ver_hallucinogena_v%c3%a4xter,_svampar_och_djur.
- ↑ "Lycaeum > Leda > Acacia longifolia". leda.lycaeum.org. http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=15799.
- ↑ extentech.sheetster.com
- ↑ S. Voogelbreinder "Garden Of Eden" 2009
- ↑ "Lista över hallucinogena växter, svampar och djur – Magiska Molekylers Wiki". http://wiki.magiskamolekyler.org/Lista_%C3%B6ver_hallucinogena_v%C3%A4xter,_svampar_och_djur.
- ↑ "obtusifolia phyto". Users.lycaeum.org. http://users.lycaeum.org/~mulga/acacia/obtuphy.html.
- ↑ Plants Containing DMT (German)
- ↑ "Acacia campylacantha – Hortipedia". www.hortipedia.org. http://www.hortipedia.org/de/index.php?title=Acacia_campylacantha.
- ↑ Pawar, RS; Grundel, E; Fardin-Kia, AR; Rader, JI (January 2014). "Determination of selected biogenic amines in Acacia rigidula plant materials and dietary supplements using LC-MS/MS methods.". Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 88: 457–66. doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2013.09.012. PMID 24176750.
- ↑ "Chemistry of Acacias from South Texas". http://uvalde.tamu.edu/pdf/chemtdaf.pdf.
- ↑ "Eins". Factorey.ch. http://www.factorey.ch/Eins.htm.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 Granier-Doyeux, Marcel (January 1, 1965). "Native hallucinogenic drugs piptadenias". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1965-01-01_2_page006.html?print=yes.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
- ↑ "Cultivo de Curupay, Cebil colorado (Anadenanthera colubrina) y usos, herbotecnia". Herbotecnia.com.ar. http://www.herbotecnia.com.ar/aut-curupay.html.
- ↑ "Bufo alvarius – Jonathan Ott on Bufotenine". Erowid.org. http://www.erowid.org/archive/sonoran_desert_toad/ott.htm.
- ↑ Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
- ↑ Stafford, Peter (2013-02-18). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Ronin. ISBN 978-1-57951-169-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec5hNgYWHtkC&q=%22dmt+n+oxide%22&pg=RA2-PA313. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
- ↑ Ott, J. (July–September 2001). "Pharmañopo-psychonautics: human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 33 (3): 273–81. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. PMID 11718320.
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Erowid Online Books: "Ayahuasca: alkaloids, plants, and analogs" by Keeper of the Trout". Erowid.org. http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/ayahuasca_apa/aya_sec3_part2_desmanthus.shtml.
- ↑ Hegnauer, R. (1996-07-30). Google Book Search. Springer. ISBN 978-3-7643-5165-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=bUV8C6iLFkEC&q=%22Mimosa+somnians%22&pg=PA236. Retrieved 2008-05-08.
- ↑ {{citation | mode = cs1 | title = Desmodium caudatum | work = Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) | url = https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?311307 | publisher = [[Organization:Agricultural Research ServAgricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | access-date = 2008-05-02 }}
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 "Trout's Notes on Desmodium". http://trout.yage.net/sc/D2_2004_Trout.pdf.
- ↑ The alkaloids. Chemistry and pharmacology. Volume 26. Academic Press. 1985. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-08-086550-8.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 56.5 56.6 56.7 "Erowid Psychoactive Vaults: Tryptamine FAQ". Erowid.org. http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/faqs/faqs_tryptamine.shtml.
- ↑ "Isolation and Identification of Putative Hallucinogenic Constituents from the Roots of Mimosa ophthalmocentra". Pharmaceutical Biology.
- ↑ Hegnauer, R. (1996-07-30). Google Book Search. Springer. ISBN 978-3-7643-5165-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=bUV8C6iLFkEC&q=%22Mimosa+somnians%22&pg=PA236. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
- ↑ Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen. Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen. Aarau: AT-Verl. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-85502-570-1.
- ↑ "UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics 1969". http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1969-01-01_4_page004.html.
- ↑ Dart, Richard C. (2004). Medical Toxicology - Google Book Search. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-2845-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=qDf3AO8nILoC&q=%22mucuna+pruriens%22+alkaloids&pg=PA1679. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 "tryptamines: fungi". Bluezoo.org. http://bluezoo.org/tryptamines/plants.html.
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 63.3 63.4 63.5 63.6 63.7 63.8 [1]
- ↑ Alloisio, Susanna; Clericuzio, Marco; Nobile, Mario; Salis, Annalisa; Damonte, Gianluca; Canali, Claudia; Fortuna-Perez, Ana Paula; Cornara, Laura et al. (2022). "Cannabis-like activity of Zornia latifolia Sm. detected in vitro on rat cortical neurons: major role of the flavone syzalterin". Drug and Chemical Toxicology 45 (2): 919–931. doi:10.1080/01480545.2020.1788057. ISSN 1525-6014. PMID 32628037.
- ↑ "Plants Containing DMT List". Dmt-nexus.com. http://www.dmt-nexus.com/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?p=1828&sid=907c4141f55f0ecd5275b5ae22893feb.
- ↑ Ott, Jonathan (1996). Pharmacotheon. Natural Products Company. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-9614234-8-3. https://archive.org/details/pharmacotheonent00ottj.
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- ↑ "Indole alkaloids from Tabernaemontana australis (Muell. Arg) Miers that inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 13 (12): 4092–5. June 2005. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2005.03.045. PMID 15911323.
- ↑ Duke, James A. (2017-10-24). Handbook of Phytochemical Constituent Grass, Herbs and Other Economic Plants: Herbal Reference Library (2 ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-75262-3.
- ↑ Cornara, L.; Fortuna-Perez, A. P.; Bruni, I.; Salis, A.; Damonte, G.; Borghesi, B.; Clericuzio, M. (2018-09-01). "Zornia latifolia: a smart drug being adulterated by Stylosanthes guianensis" (in en). International Journal of Legal Medicine 132 (5): 1321–1331. doi:10.1007/s00414-018-1774-z. ISSN 1437-1596. PMID 29362872.
- ↑ Fattore, Liana; Fratta, Walter (2011). "Beyond THC: The New Generation of Cannabinoid Designer Drugs". Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 5: 60. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00060. ISSN 1662-5153. PMID 22007163.
Bibliography
- Al Zarouni, Yousif (2015). The Effects of Khat (Catha Edulis). London: Yousif Al Zarouni.
External links
- Descriptions of psychoactive Cacti. Lycaeum Visionary Cactus Guide
- Erowid Tryptamine FAQ – More Plants Containing Tryptamines
- John Stephen Glasby, Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites, Published by CRC Press
- Golden Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants
- Hallucinogens on the Internet: A Vast New Source of Underground Drug Information John H. Halpern, M.D. and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., M.D.
- Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids from the Plants of the Family Elaeocarpaceae – Peter L. Katavic, Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids From the Plants Of The Family Elaeocarpaceae, School of Science/Natural Product Discovery (NPD), Faculty of Science, Griffith University
- Alexander T. Shulgin, Psychotomimetic Drugs: Structure-Activity Relationships
- UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part II)
- UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part III)
- Virola – Dried Herbarium Specimens
- Virola Species Pictures – USGS
- Desmanthus illinoensis – USDA
- Psychedelic Reader (Google Books)
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