Biology:Outline of artificial satellites

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Short description: Technology development overview
Artists impression of Sputnik 1 in space.[1]
Two 3U CubeSats
Two CubeSats orbiting around Earth after being deployed from the ISS Kibō module's Small Satellite Orbital Deployer.
File:Cluster’s Salsa satellite primed to reenter and break up ESA501005.webm
A European Space Agency rendered video of a likely atmospheric entry in 2024 of the Salsa satellite from the Cluster mission. The satellite was targeted to reenter the atmosphere over the spacecraft cemetery in the South Pacific.

Artificial satellites are human-made spacecraft placed into orbit around Earth or another celestial body. They are distinct from natural satellites such as moons, and from space probes that travel beyond Earth orbit or between planetary bodies. Artificial satellites operate as part of wider satellite systems that may include a satellite bus, payload, ground segment, launch vehicle, tracking network, and regulatory framework.

Artificial satellites are used for communications, navigation, Earth observation, weather monitoring, scientific research, military support, intelligence gathering, astronomy, and technology demonstration. They occupy many types of orbits, including low Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit, geostationary orbit, Sun-synchronous orbit, polar orbit, highly elliptical orbit, Lagrange-point orbits, and orbits around the Moon, Mars, and other Solar System bodies.

Essence of satellites

Template:Spaceflight sidebar Artificial satellites are spacecraft placed in orbit to perform functions through a payload, supported by a satellite bus, ground segment, and wider satellite systems.[2] Satellites are defined by their primary body, their orbital motion, and their distinction from natural satellites, space probes, space stations, orbital debris, and other kinds of spacecraft.[3] Satellites make up the vast majority of modern space missions and launches.[4]: 1 

Basic satellite functions

Earth station at the satellite communication facility Raisting Earth Station in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany.
  • Communications
  • Military support
  • Navigation
  • Global navigation satellite system - Satellites that provide signals for geopositioning.[11]
  • Observation
  • Scientific measurement
  • Technology demonstration
  • CubeSat – Miniature satellite in 10 cm cube modules.[19]
  • Technology demonstration satellite – Showcasing an idea for new technology.[20]
  • Timing
The US Space Force's GPS was both the first global satellite navigation system and to be provided as a free global service.

Core concepts

  • Artificial satellite
  • Orbit
  • Payload
  • Payload – Carrying capacity of a vehicle
  • Satellite bus – Main body and structural component of the satellite
  • Primary body
  • Barycenter – Center of mass of multiple bodies orbiting each other
  • Primary body – Prime astronomical designated entity within a gravitational system

Satellite

  • Satellite – Objects intentionally placed into orbit

Satellite system

The GPS constellation calls for 24 satellites to be distributed equally on six orbital planes. The number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 40°N, changes with time.

Spacecraft

Fundamental distinctions

  • Natural and artificial satellites
  • Artificial satellite – Objects intentionally placed into orbit
  • Moon – Natural satellite orbiting Earth
  • Natural satellite – Astronomical body that orbits a planet
  • Satellites and orbital debris
  • Derelict spacecraft – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Graveyard orbit – Spacecraft end-of-life orbit
  • Kessler syndrome – Theoretical satellite collision cascade
  • Orbital debris – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Space debris – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Satellites and space probes
  • Flyby (spaceflight) – Flight event at some distance from the object
  • Interplanetary probe – Unmanned robotic spacecraft
  • Spacecraft – Vehicle or machine designed to fly in space
  • Space probe – Unmanned robotic spacecraft
  • Satellites and space stations
  • International Space Station – Modular space station in low Earth orbit
  • Mir – Soviet/Russian space station (1986–2001)
  • Skylab – First space station launched and operated by NASA (1973–1979)
  • Space station – Habitable artificial satellite
  • Tiangong space station – Chinese modular space station (since 2021)
  • Satellites and spacecraft

Applications

Artificial satellites are used across civil, commercial, scientific, and military fields. Major applications include astronomy,[25] communications,[26] Earth observation,[27] remote sensing,[28][29] satellite navigation,[lower-alpha 1] weather monitoring,[35] military support,[36] and educational or amateur spaceflight.[37][38]

Astronomy and space science

Satellites support astronomy and space science by carrying instruments above Earth's atmosphere, observing wavelengths and environments that are difficult or impossible to study from the ground. Major scientific uses include space telescope observations,[39][40] cosmic microwave background mapping,[41] gamma-ray astronomy,[42] infrared astronomy,[43][44] X-ray astronomy,[45]: 49–58  planetary science,[46] solar observation,[47] and space physics.[48]

  • Cosmic microwave background missions
  • Gamma-ray observatories
Launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis carrying the CGRO observatory to Earth orbit (STS-37)
  • Infrared observatories
  • Planetary science orbiters
  • Solar observatories
Artist's impression of the Solar Orbiter orbiting the Sun.
  • Space physics and magnetospheric satellites
  • Space telescopes
The Hubble Space Telescope.
  • X-ray observatories

Communications

File:Apollo 11 Landing - first steps on the moon.ogv
Clip of the international broadcast of the first Moon landing, Neil Armstrong making humanity's first step onto an extraterrestrial body, transmitted from Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station[55] and distributed globally via the Intelsat III F-4 satellite.[56]

Communications satellites relay voice, video, data, Internet, broadcast, mobile, and emergency communications through links between Earth stations, user terminals, and other spacecraft.[26] Major communications applications include fixed-satellite service,[57] mobile satellite service,[58] satellite television,[59]: 207  satellite radio,[60][61] satellite Internet access,[62][63] direct-to-device services, inter-satellite links,[64] and satellite-aided search and rescue.[65]

  • Fixed-satellite service
  • Standards
  • DVB-S – 1995 digital TV standard for satellite television
  • DVB-S2 – Digital satellite television standard
  • Ground equipment
  • Mobile-satellite service
  • Marisat – Series of communications satellites
  • Mobile satellite service – Service for mobile phones to communicate with satellites
  • Orbcomm – American wireless networking and telecommunications company
  • Satellite phone – Type of mobile phone
  • Thuraya – UAE-based satellite telecommunications company
  • Broadcasting-satellite service
  • Satellite radio
  • 1worldspace – Defunct satellite radio network
  • Satellite radio – Broadcasting-satellite service
  • SiriusXM – American radio broadcasting corporation
  • WorldSpace – Defunct satellite radio network
  • Satellite Internet
A batch of small satellites attached to the rocket with the Earth in the background
The first batch of 60 Starlink satellites stacked together before deployment on 24 May 2019.
  • Amazon Leo – Amazon satellite constellation and internet service
  • Eutelsat OneWeb – Global communications company
  • O3b – Group of telecommunications satellites
  • Satellite Internet access – Satellite-provided Internet
  • Starlink – SpaceX satellite Internet constellation
  • Telesat – Canadian satellite communications company
  • Direct-to-device
  • Inter-satellite links
  • Emergency communications
  • Emergency communication system – Communication system used for emergency coordination
  • International Cospas-Sarsat Programme – International satellite-aided search and rescue initiative

Earth observation and remote sensing

Earth observation satellites and remote sensing satellites collect data about Earth's land, oceans, atmosphere, ice, climate, and human activity.[66][27] Their applications include precision agriculture,[67] climate monitoring, disaster response,[68][69][70][71] environmental monitoring,[72] hyperspectral imaging,[73][74] laser altimetry,[75] multispectral imaging,[76][77][78][79][80] oceanography, synthetic-aperture radar,[81] and urban planning.[82]

  • Agricultural monitoring
  • Climate monitoring
Artist's conception of OCO-2, the second successful high precision (better than 0.3%) CO
2 observing satellite.
  • Disaster monitoring
  • Disaster Monitoring Constellation – Satellite constellation
  • Flood – Water overflow submerging usually-dry land
  • International Charter Space and Major Disasters – Non-binding multinational alliance
  • Wildfire – Uncontrolled fire in forests or open spaces
  • Environmental monitoring
  • Hyperspectral imaging
The Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean (HICO) on the International Space Station.
  • Ice monitoring
  • Arctic Weather Satellite – European weather satellite
  • CryoSat – ESA programme monitoring polar ice using satellites
  • CryoSat-2 – European Space Agency environmental research satellite
  • Cryosphere – Earth's surface where water is frozen
  • Glacier – Persistent body of ice that moves downhill under its own weight
  • Ice sheet – Large mass of glacial ice
  • Sea ice – Outcome of seawater as it freezes
  • Land observation
  • Laser altimetry
Artist's rendering of the ICESat-1 satellite.
  • Digital elevation model – 3D computer-generated imagery and measurements of terrain
  • ICESat – NASA satellite to observe ice sheets, clouds, and land (2003–2010)
  • ICESat-2 – NASA Earth observation satellite
  • Lidar – Method of spatial measurement using laser
  • Multispectral imaging
  • Ocean observation
  • Optical imaging
Six Earth observation satellites comprising the A-train satellite constellation as of 2014.
  • Landsat 1 – American earth observation satellite (1972–1978)
  • Landsat 7 – American earth observation satellite (1999–2025)
  • Landsat 8 – American earth observation satellite
  • Landsat 9 – American earth observation satellite
  • Radar altimetry
File:TOPEX;Poseidon.jpg
Artist's rendering of the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite.
  • Jason satellite series – Series of Earth observation satellites
  • Radar altimeter – Measures an aircraft's height above the terrain
  • SARAL – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Sea surface height – Shape of the ocean surface relative to the geoid
  • TOPEX/Poseidon – Satellite mission to map ocean surface topography
  • Synthetic-aperture radar
  • Radarsat-1 – Canadian Earth observation satellite (1995–2013)
  • Radarsat-2 – Canadian earth observation satellite
  • Urban monitoring

Education, amateur, and student satellites

Educational, amateur, and student satellites use small spacecraft to support amateur radio, hands-on engineering, classroom projects, university missions, citizen science, biological research, and low-cost technology demonstrations.[83][84] Many are CubeSats or other small satellites developed by universities, nonprofit organizations, student teams, or amateur radio groups.[85][86][87][88]

  • Amateur radio and educational satellites
  • Citizen-science and crowdfunded satellites
LightSail 2 with deployed solar sail in space, 23 July 2019.
  • Educational payloads
  • University and student satellites
  • Aalto-1 – Finnish research nanosatellite
  • AAU CubeSat – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-2 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-3 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • ArduSat – Arduino-based CubeSat science project
  • BRICSat-2 – Experimental amateur radio satellite
  • BRICSat-P – United States technology demonstration and amateur radio cubesat
  • CanSat – Sounding rocket payload used to teach space technology
  • Cornell University Satellite – American technology demonstration satellite
  • CubeSat – Miniature satellite in 10 cm cube modules
  • Delfi-C3 – Dutch mini-satellite
  • Delfi-n3Xt – Dutch nanosatellite
  • EQUiSat
  • KickSat – Citizen science project
  • KySat-1 – American satellite
  • Quakesat – Earth Observation nanosatellite

Military and intelligence

Military and intelligence satellites support military communications,[89] missile warning,[90] reconnaissance,[91] signals intelligence,[92] maritime domain awareness,[93][94] and space domain awareness.[95][96][97] This area also includes anti-satellite weapons and other counterspace systems intended to disable, destroy, inspect, or interfere with satellites and other space assets.[98][99][100][101]

  • Anti-satellite systems
An artist's impression of a futuristic anti-satellite weapon capable of destroying satellites using "circular saw" extensions.
  • 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test – Largest field of space debris in history
  • Anti-satellite weapon – Kinetic energy device designed to destroy satellites in orbit
  • Directed-energy weapon – Type of weapon that fires a concentrated beam of energy at its target
  • Istrebitel Sputnikov – Soviet anti-satellite weapon program
  • Operation Burnt Frost – 2008 military operation to destroy a non-functioning U.S. satellite
  • Project SAINT – US anti-Soviet spacecraft system
  • Military communications satellites
  • Missile warning satellites
  • Ocean surveillance satellites
  • Reconnaissance satellites
The constellation of the Lacrosse (Onyx) SAR satellites in orbit as of August 2011.
  • Signals intelligence
  • Electronic intelligence – Intelligence-gathering by interception of signals
  • Magnum (satellite) – Class of spy satellites of the United States Central Intelligence Agency
  • Mercury (satellite) – Series of United States spy satellites
  • Naval Ocean Surveillance System – Series of signals-intelligence satellites of the U.S. Navy
  • White Cloud – Series of signals-intelligence satellites of the U.S. Navy
  • Olymp-K – Russian military geostationary satellite
  • Orion (satellite) – Class of United States spy satellites
  • Signals intelligence – Intelligence-gathering by interception of signals
  • Space situational awareness satellites
  • Sapphire (satellite) – Canadian space surveillance satellite
  • Satellite collision – Collision involving one or more satellites in orbit
  • Sentient – U.S. government AI system[102][103]
  • Space domain awareness – Surveillance from and of the outer space environment
  • U.S. Space Surveillance Network – SSA system

Satellite navigation systems use signals from global navigation satellite systems and regional navigation systems to support geopositioning, navigation, and precise timing.[104][11] Applications include air navigation, automotive navigation, marine navigation, surveying, geodesy, precision agriculture, and satellite-based augmentation systems[105][106] such as the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service[107][108] and Wide Area Augmentation System,[109][110] which improve satellite navigation accuracy, integrity, continuity, or availability, and timing accuracy with procedures like time and frequency transfer.[111][112]

  • Navigation applications
  • Navigation – Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle
  • Air navigation – Navigation for aviation
  • Global navigation satellite systems
Animation of the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System's orbits around Earth.
  • BeiDou – Chinese global navigation satellite system
  • Galileo (satellite navigation system) – European global navigation satellite system
  • Global Positioning System – American satellite-based radio navigation service
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System – Satellite navigation system
  • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • Positioning
  • Geodesy – Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth
  • Geopositioning – Determination of the geographic position of an object
  • Real-time kinematic positioning – Satellite navigation technique used to enhance the precision of position data
  • Surveying – Science of determining the positions of points and the distances and angles between them
  • Precision agriculture
  • Regional navigation satellite systems
  • Korea Positioning System – Planned South Korean navigational system
  • Satellite-based augmentation systems
  • Timing applications

Weather and climate

File:MetOp Second Generation A-type satellite ESA511182.jpg
MetOp series meteorological satellite.

Weather satellites and meteorological satellite systems observe the atmosphere, clouds, precipitation, greenhouse gases, and other Earth-system variables used in weather forecasting and climate monitoring.[113] Major uses include atmospheric sounding,[114][115] cloud and storm monitoring, greenhouse gas monitoring,[116] precipitation measurement, and long-term environmental observation by systems such as GOES,[117] Meteosat,[118] Himawari,[119] and MetOp.[120]

  • Atmospheric sounding
  • Cloud monitoring
  • Greenhouse gas monitoring
  • Meteorological satellites
  • Storm tracking

Law, policy, and governance

Registration and responsibility

The deploying of the U.S. flag during the first crewed Moon landing (Apollo 11) on the lunar surface does not constitute a territorial claim, unlike historically practiced on Earth, since the US reinforced the Outer Space Treaty by adhering to it and making no such territorial claim.[121]

Space law links satellites and other space objects to the states and agencies responsible for their launch, operation, registration, identification, and regulation.[122] Under the Outer Space Treaty, states retain jurisdiction and control over registered space objects, bear international responsibility for national space activities, and may be liable for damage caused by their space objects.[123] Related systems include launch, communications, and remote-sensing licensing; registration under the Registration Convention and the United Nations Register;[124][125] and object identification through International Designators, Satellite Catalog Numbers,[126] orbital elements,[127] and two-line element sets.[128][129]

  • Jurisdiction and control
  • Launching state
  • Launch vehicle – Rocket used to carry a spacecraft into space
  • Outer Space Treaty – Basis of international space law
  • Registration Convention – 1974 United Nations treaty
  • Space launch – Earliest phase of a flight that reaches space
  • Space Liability Convention – 1972 treaty that expands on the liability rules in the Outer Space Treaty
  • Spaceport – Location used to launch and receive spacecraft
  • State responsibility – Responsibility of government in international law
  • United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – United Nations committee
  • United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs – Space agency
  • Liability for damage
Space debris populations related to Kessler syndrome risks (not to scale) seen from outside geosynchronous orbit (GSO). There are two primary debris fields: the ring of objects in GSO and the cloud of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO).
  • 2009 satellite collision – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
  • Iridium 33 – Communications satellite operated by Iridium Communications
  • Kessler syndrome – Theoretical satellite collision cascade
  • Kosmos 954 – Reconnaissance satellite of Soviet Union
  • Kosmos 2251 – Defunct Russian military communications satellite, operational from 1993 to 1995
  • Satellite collision – Collision involving one or more satellites in orbit
  • Space Liability Convention – 1972 treaty that expands on the liability rules in the Outer Space Treaty
  • Satellite registration
  • Space object identification

Space law

Space law is the national and international legal framework governing space activities, including liability for damage caused by space objects, registration of launched objects, national licensing of space activities, and treaty rules on exploration, non-appropriation, rescue, weapons, and use of the Moon and other celestial bodies.[130][131][132] It includes the Outer Space Treaty,[133] Space Liability Convention,[134] Registration Convention,[135] Moon Treaty,[136] and national laws governing commercial and private spaceflight.[137]

  • Space law – Area of national and international law governing activities in outer space
  • Liability Convention
The 2009 satellite collision involved the craft Iridium 33 (silver and gold) and Kosmos 2251 (blue cylinder; digital render).
  • 2009 satellite collision – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
  • Kosmos 954 – Reconnaissance satellite of Soviet Union
  • Space Liability Convention – 1972 treaty that expands on the liability rules in the Outer Space Treaty
  • Moon Agreement
  • National space law
  • Outer Space Treaty
  • Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space – 1967 treaty on rescuing persons in space
  • Militarisation of space – Use of outer space for military aims
  • Outer Space Treaty – Basis of international space law
  • Space jurisdiction – Aspect of what countries can enforce in space
  • Space weapon – Weapons used in space warfare
  • United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – United Nations committee
  • United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs – Space agency
  • Registration Convention

Space traffic management

Space traffic management covers the rules, data, and operating practices used to reduce collision, debris, reentry, and interference risks as satellites share increasingly crowded orbits.[138][139] It includes commercial launch and reentry regulation,[140] space situational awareness, collision avoidance, conjunction warnings, orbital-debris mitigation, end-of-life disposal, remote-sensing regulation, and tracking systems used to identify and monitor objects in orbit.[141]

  • Commercial space regulation
  • Commercial Space Launch Act – Federal law facilitating commercialization of space technology
  • Federal Aviation Administration – U.S. government agency regulating civil aviation
  • Office of Space Commerce – Office within the NOAA
  • Conjunction warnings
  • 2009 satellite collision – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
  • Collision avoidance (spacecraft) – Form of collision management in aeronautics
  • Iridium 33 – Communications satellite operated by Iridium Communications
  • Satellite collision – Collision involving one or more satellites in orbit
  • End-of-life rules
Mir in 1998, three years before it was deorbited.
  • Orbital debris guidelines
  • Remote sensing regulation
  • Remote sensing – Obtaining information through non-contact sensors
  • United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space – United Nations committee
  • Space situational awareness governance
  • Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program – American military space surveillance program
  • Space Based Space Surveillance – American military space surveillance program
  • Space situational awareness – Surveillance from and of the outer space environment
  • U.S. Space Surveillance Network – SSA system

Spectrum and orbital slots

Spectrum management and orbital-slot coordination govern how satellites use radio frequencies and positions in orbit without causing harmful interference.[142] For satellite networks, this includes International Telecommunication Union coordination,[143] Radio Regulations, frequency allocation, geostationary orbital slots,[144][145] harmful-interference rules, and shared use of bands such as C band,[146][147] Ku band,[148][149] and Ka band.[150]

  • Coordination of satellite networks
  • Geostationary orbital slots
File:Geostationaryjava3D 300px.gif
Two geostationary satellites in the same orbit.
  • Clarke Belt – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Geostationary orbit – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Satellite arc – Imaginary Arc in the Sky
  • Orbital slot – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Spectrum management – Regulating the use of radio frequencies to promote efficient use
  • Harmful interference
  • Electromagnetic interference – Disturbance in an electrical circuit due to external sources of radio waves
  • Harmful interference – Disturbance in an electrical circuit due to external sources of radio waves
  • Radio jamming – Interference with authorized wireless communications
  • Radio Regulations – Regulation and licensing of radio waves in law
  • International Telecommunication Union
  • Orbital slot assignment
  • First-come, first-served – Mathematical study of waiting lines, or queues
  • Bringing into use – Treaty
  • Orbital slot – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Paper satellite
  • Radiofrequency allocation
  • C band – Range of radio frequencies from 4 to 8 GHz
  • Frequency allocation – Allocation and regulation of the electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands
  • ITU Radio Regulations – Treaty
  • Ka band – Portion of the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum (26.5–40 gigahertz)
  • Ku band – Range of radio frequencies from 11–20 GHz
  • Radio spectrum – Electromagnetic spectrum, 3 Hz – 3000 GHz
  • Spectrum management – Regulating the use of radio frequencies to promote efficient use

Orbits

Satellite orbits are chosen to match a mission's coverage, altitude, viewing geometry, communications needs, lifetime, and propulsion limits.[151] They range from near-Earth paths used by communications, navigation, weather, reconnaissance, and Earth observation satellites to lunar, planetary, small-body, heliocentric, and Lagrange-region trajectories used in space science and exploration.[152]

Earth orbits

Celestial equator in relation to the galactic and ecliptic planes.

Earth-orbiting satellites use altitude, inclination, eccentricity, and ground-track design to balance coverage, revisit time, resolution, lifetime, radiation exposure, and access to ground stations.[153] Common operational orbit families include low, medium, geosynchronous, geostationary, polar, Sun-synchronous, highly elliptical, and transfer orbits.[154][152] GEO spacecraft may also be moved into disposal or graveyard orbits at the end of their missions.[155]

  • Equatorial orbit
  • Geostationary orbit
  • Clarke Belt – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Communications satellite – Artificial satellite that relays radio signals
  • Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite – US weather satellite series
  • Geostationary orbit – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Geosynchronous orbit – Orbit keeping the satellite at a fixed longitude above the equator
  • Himawari (satellites) – Geostationary meteorological satellite
  • List of satellites in geostationary orbit
  • Meteosat – Series of european weather satellites
  • Orbital slot – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Orbital station-keeping – Maintenance of a particular orbit
  • Satellite television – Broadcasting of television using artificial satellites
  • Weather satellite – Type of satellite designed to record the state of the Earth's atmosphere
  • Geosynchronous orbit
  • Geostationary orbit – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
  • Geosynchronous orbit – Orbit keeping the satellite at a fixed longitude above the equator
  • Inclined geosynchronous orbit – Orbit keeping the satellite at a fixed longitude above the equator
  • Inclined orbit – Orbital plane that is tipped away from the equator
  • List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit
  • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • Synchronous orbit – Orbit of an astronomical body equal to that body's average rotational period
  • Tundra orbit – Highly elliptical and highly inclined synchronous orbit
  • Graveyard orbit
File:Reentry video as Orion returns from Artemis I.webm
Video of Orion's skip reentry on Artemis 1, showing the entire reentry process unedited from space to splashdown.
  • Highly elliptical orbit
  • Inclined orbit
Retrograde orbit: the satellite (red) orbits in the direction opposite to the rotation of its primary (blue/black).
  • Low Earth orbit
  • Medium Earth orbit
Galileo visibility from locations on Earth's surface in orbital motion.
  • BeiDou – Chinese global navigation satellite system
  • Galileo (satellite navigation system) – European global navigation satellite system
  • Global Positioning System – American satellite-based radio navigation service
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • GPS satellite blocks – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • Medium Earth orbit – Earth-centered orbit above low Earth orbit and below geostationary orbit
  • Navigation satellite – Use of satellite signals for navigation or geo-spatial positioning
  • O3b – Group of telecommunications satellites
  • Van Allen radiation belt – Zone of energetic charged particles around the planet Earth
  • Molniya orbit
  • Polar orbit
  • Sun-synchronous orbit
Diagram showing the orientation of a Sun-synchronous orbit (green) at four points in the year. A non-Sun-synchronous orbit (magenta) is also shown for reference. Dates are shown in white: day/month.
  • Tundra orbit
  • Argument of periapsis – Specifies the orbit of an object in space
  • Digital audio radio service – US classification for digital radio services
  • Geosynchronous orbit – Orbit keeping the satellite at a fixed longitude above the equator
  • Highly elliptical orbit – Orbit in the two body case with high eccentricity
  • Molniya orbit – Type of high-latitude satellite orbit
  • Orbital eccentricity – Amount by which an orbit deviates from a perfect circle
  • Orbital inclination – Angle between a reference plane and the plane of an orbit
  • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • SiriusXM – American radio broadcasting corporation
  • Tundra orbit – Highly elliptical and highly inclined synchronous orbit
  • Very low Earth orbit
Illustration of various satellite Earth orbital spaceflight altitudes.

Lagrange-point orbits

Stylized depiction of the Interplanetary Transport Network path through the Solar System. The green ribbon represents one path of mathematically possibles options along the darker green bounding tube. Abrupt ribbon changes represent trajectory changes at Lagrange points. Constricted areas represent locations where objects linger in temporary orbit around a point before continuing on.

Lagrange point orbits use the gravitational structure of the three-body problem to keep spacecraft near useful equilibrium regions with limited station-keeping.[156][157] They include halo orbits,[158] Lissajous orbits,[159][160] distant retrograde orbits,[161] and other cislunar or interplanetary trajectories used for Earth-Sun observatories, Earth-Moon relay and Gateway missions, and low-energy transfer paths associated with the Interplanetary Transport Network.[162][163]

  • Distant retrograde orbits
  • Earth-Moon Lagrange-point orbits
  • Earth-Sun Lagrange-point orbits
  • Halo orbits
  • Lissajous orbits

Non-Earth orbits

Non-Earth orbits extend spacecraft operations beyond geocentric space, including lunar, planetary, small-body, dwarf-planet, cometary, and heliocentric trajectories.[164][165][166][167] These missions use interplanetary navigation, trajectory correction, and orbital insertion to support planetary science, relay communications, surface reconnaissance, sample-return support, and small-body exploration.[168][169][170][171]

  • Dwarf-planet orbit
File:Dawn Launch.gif
The launch of Dawn as seen per the YouTube video released on 20 December 2010 NASA's Kennedy Space Center.
  • 4 Vesta – Second largest main-belt asteroid
  • Actaea (moon) – Moon of 120347 Salacia
  • Ceres (dwarf planet) – Dwarf planet in the asteroid belt
  • Charon (moon) – Largest natural satellite of Pluto
  • Dawn (spacecraft) – NASA orbiter mission to asteroid Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres (2007–2018)
  • Dwarf planet – Small planetary-mass object
  • Dysnomia (moon) – Moon of Eris
  • Hiʻiaka (moon) – Larger moon of Haumea
  • Hydra (moon) – Moon of Pluto
  • Kerberos (moon) – Small natural satellite of Pluto
  • List of natural satellites
  • Moons of Pluto – Natural satellites orbiting Pluto
  • Namaka (moon) – Smaller moon of Haumea
  • Nix (moon) – Moon of Pluto
  • Styx (moon) – Small natural satellite of Pluto
  • Vanth (moon) – Moon of Orcus
  • Weywot – Moon of dwarf planet Quaoar
  • Xiangliu (moon) – Moon of the dwarf planet Gonggong
  • Heliocentric orbit
  • Lunar orbit
Clementine star tracker view of the Moon and Venus in the distance.
  • Mars orbit
  • Planetary orbit
Artist's concept of Cassini's orbit insertion around Saturn.
  • Small-body orbit
  • 4 Vesta – Second largest main-belt asteroid
  • 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko – Periodic contact binary comet
  • 433 Eros – Near-Earth asteroid
  • 25143 Itokawa – Potentially hazardous near-Earth asteroid in the Apollo group
  • 101955 Bennu – Carbonaceous Apollo asteroid
  • 162173 Ryugu – Apollo asteroid
  • Asteroid – Minor planet found within the inner Solar System
  • Ceres (dwarf planet) – Dwarf planet in the asteroid belt
  • Comet – Natural object in space that releases gas
  • Dawn (spacecraft) – NASA orbiter mission to asteroid Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres (2007–2018)
  • Hayabusa – Japanese probe to asteroid and sample return (2003–2010)
  • Hayabusa2 – Japanese space mission to asteroid Ryugu
  • Hera (space mission) – Planetary defence spacecraft developed by the ESA
  • NEAR Shoemaker – American space probe to asteroid (1996–2001)
  • OSIRIS-REx – NASA asteroid sample return mission (2016–2023)
  • Psyche (spacecraft) – Reconnaissance mission of the main belt asteroid 16 Psyche
  • Rosetta (spacecraft) – European mission to study Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (2004–2016)
  • Small Solar System body – Object in the Solar System
  • Venus orbit

Orbital parameters and maneuvers

RKA Mission Control Center in Korolyov, Russia. The central monitor displays the ground track of the International Space Station.

Orbital parameters describe where a satellite is, how its orbit is shaped, and how that orbit changes over time. Maneuvers such as insertion,[172] transfer,[173][174][175] station-keeping,[176] orbit raising and station-keeping use propulsive maneuvers to place satellites in useful orbits and maintain them there, while deorbiting and disposal use drag-augmentation devices, reentry planning, storage orbits, or other disposal strategies to remove spacecraft from operational regions.[177][178][179]

  • Orbital elements and parameters
  • Apsis – Either of two extreme points in a celestial object's orbit
  • Frozen orbit – Orbit in which natural drifting has been minimized
  • Ground track – Path on the surface of the Earth or another body directly below an aircraft or satellite
  • Orbital eccentricity – Amount by which an orbit deviates from a perfect circle
  • Orbital elements – Parameters that define a specific orbit
  • Orbital inclination – Angle between a reference plane and the plane of an orbit
  • Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft
  • Orbital node – Point where an orbit crosses a plane of reference to which it is inclined
  • Orbital period – Time an astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object
  • Orbital resonance – Regular and periodic mutual gravitational influence of orbiting bodies
  • Repeat ground track
  • Right ascension of the ascending node – Defining the orbit of an object in space
  • Two-line element set – Orbital data format
  • Orbit insertion and transfer
  • Station-keeping and orbit maintenance
Rendering of Hayabusa 2's ion propulsion system in use.
  • Orbital decay and deorbiting
  • Aerobraking – Spaceflight maneuver
  • Atmospheric drag – Retarding force on a body moving in a fluid
  • Atmospheric reentry – Passage of an object through the gases of an atmosphere from outer space
  • Deorbit burn
  • Graveyard orbit – Spacecraft end-of-life orbit
  • Orbital decay – Process that leads to gradual decrease of the distance between two orbiting bodies
  • Space debris – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects

Satellite operations and lifecycle

Satellite lifecycle

The satellite lifecycle runs from mission design and spacecraft integration through launch, deployment, routine operations, servicing, and end-of-mission disposal.[180][181][182] It includes the satellite bus,[183] payload,[184] and ground segment needed to support the mission;[185][186]: 1  the launch vehicle,[187] satellite dispenser,[188][189] and early-orbit checkout and commissioning used to place the spacecraft into service;[190] and later operations such as telemetry, mission control, station-keeping, attitude control, refuelling, passivation, and disposal to reduce space debris.[190][191][182][179]

  • Design and mission planning
  • Launch and deployment
Comparison of launch vehicles. Shownn are payload masses to achieve low earth, geostationary transfer, trans-lunar, and helicentric trans-Martian injection orbits.
  • Operations and control
  • Servicing, disposal, and end of mission

Launch and deployment

Launch and deployment cover the transition from a completed spacecraft on the ground to an operating satellite in orbit.[181] This phase includes launch-site processing, dedicated or rideshare launch, separation from the launch vehicle or deployer, initial signal acquisition, and commissioning checks that confirm the spacecraft is healthy enough to begin routine operations.[190][192]

  • Commissioning
  • Telemetry – Automatic collection and transmission of data
  • Dedicated launches
  • Expendable launch vehicle – Launch system that uses a single use launch vehicle
  • Launch vehicle – Rocket used to carry a spacecraft into space
  • List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches
  • Reusable launch vehicle – Vehicles that can go to space and return
  • Deployment mechanisms
  • Dispensers
A set of Nanoracks CubeSats is deployed by the Nanoracks CubeSat Deployer attached to the end of the Japanese robotic arm (25 February 2014).
  • Initial acquisition
  • Telemetry – Automatic collection and transmission of data
  • Launch sites
  • Baikonur Cosmodrome – Spaceport in Kazakhstan leased to Russia
  • Guiana Space Centre – French and European spaceport in French Guiana
  • Kennedy Space Center – NASA launch facility in Florida
  • Satish Dhawan Space Centre – Spaceport in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, India
  • Spaceport – Location used to launch and receive spacecraft
  • Launch vehicles
  • Launch vehicle – Rocket used to carry a spacecraft into space
  • LauncherOne – Two-stage, air-launched rocket by Virgin Orbit
  • Rocket Lab Electron – Two-stage small launch vehicle, 200–300 kg to LEO
  • Vega – Brightest star in the constellation Lyra
  • Rideshare launches
  • List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches
  • Rideshare (spaceflight) – Launch of small spacecraft together with larger one
  • Satellite dispenser
  • Separation systems

Station-keeping and control

Station-keeping and control keep a satellite pointed correctly and close to its intended orbit or orbital slot.[176][193] This work combines guidance, navigation, and control,[194][195][196] spacecraft attitude determination and control,[197] autonomous operations,[198] and propulsion systems used for pointing, maneuvering, orbit maintenance, and long-duration station-keeping.[197][198][177]

  • Attitude control
  • Autonomous control
The automated Progress uncrewed spacecraft approaches the International Space Station with tons of food and supplies, and then departs with trash. Progress was then intentionally crashed into the atmosphere for engineering testing.
  • Chemical propulsion
  • Electric propulsion
  • Orbit control

Servicing and repair

Satellite servicing and repair covers crewed and robotic work performed after launch to inspect, repair, refuel, upgrade, relocate, or extend the operating life of spacecraft.[202][203][204] It includes astronaut servicing missions, robotic rendezvous and proximity operations, life-extension vehicles, refueling demonstrations, and on-orbit servicing systems for satellites that may or may not have been designed for maintenance.[203][205][204][206]

  • Crewed servicing missions
  • Space Shuttle – Partially reusable launch system and space plane
  • STS-61 – 1993 American crewed spaceflight to the Hubble Space Telescope
  • STS-82 – 1997 American crewed spaceflight to the Hubble Space Telescope
  • STS-103 – 1999 American crewed spaceflight to the Hubble Space Telescope
  • STS-109 – 2002 American crewed spaceflight to the Hubble Space Telescope
  • STS-125 – 2009 American crewed spaceflight to the Hubble Space Telescope
  • Inspection
  • Autonomous Nanosatellite Guardian for Evaluating Local Space
  • DART (satellite) – NASA Autonomous Rendezvous demo 2005
  • E.Inspector – European technology demonstration cubesat
  • Orbital Express – US project to autonomously service satellites in orbit ~2007
  • Passive Inspection CubeSat – Technology demonstration cubesat
  • Prowler (satellite) – American satellite used to study Soviet satellites
  • XSS-10 – Micro-spacecraft developed by U.S. Air Force
  • Life extension
  • On-orbit servicing
A SpaceX Dragon with satellite refuelling capabilities over Argentina.
  • Refueling
  • Relocation
  • Repair
  • Robotic servicing

End of life and disposal

End-of-life and disposal practices remove satellites and orbital stages from operational regions after their missions end to reduce collision and debris risk.[179][207] Disposal can involve controlled or uncontrolled atmospheric reentry, transfer to a less congested orbit or a graveyard orbit, passivation, later active debris removal, or compliance with post-mission debris-mitigation guidelines.[208][178][209][207]

  • Controlled reentry
Artistic rendering of the Mars Exploration Rover during atmospheric reentry, its aeroshell engulfed in plasma.
  • Deorbit of Mir – Controlled atmospheric entry of Mir over the Pacific
  • Salyut 7 – Soviet space station (1982–1991)
  • Deorbiting
  • Post-mission disposal guidelines
  • Uncontrolled reentry

Satellite industry and organizations

Manufacturers

  • Launch and deployment service providers
  • Launch service providers
A SpaceX Falcon 9 launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base.
  • Satellite deployment and rideshare
  • D-Orbit – Private Italian aerospace company
  • Exolaunch – European satellite launch provider
  • Momentus Space – American aerospace company
  • Nanoracks – American private space hardware and services company
  • Servicing, logistics, and situational support
  • Astroscale – Orbital debris removal company
  • ClearSpace-1 – Planned European mission to demonstrate space debris removal
  • Impulse Space – American space company
  • Kongsberg Satellite Services – Norwegian satellite ground station services company
  • LeoLabs – American space technology company
  • Payload manufacturers
  • Aerojet Rocketdyne – American aerospace propulsion manufacturer
  • Beyond Gravity – Swiss aerospace company
  • Honeywell – American multinational conglomerate
  • L3Harris Technologies – American defense and electrical equipment manufacturer
  • Leonardo S.p.A. – Italian defence and aerospace company
  • Moog Inc. – American aerospace company
  • Teledyne Technologies – American industrial company
  • Satellite bus manufacturers
  • Large satellite bus manufacturers
  • Airbus Defence and Space – Division of Airbus
  • Boeing Satellite Development Center – Satellite manufacturing division of Boeing
  • China Academy of Space Technology – Chinese research institute
  • Israel Aerospace Industries – Aerospace and defense manufacturer
  • Lockheed Martin Space – Operating division of Lockheed Martin
  • Maxar Technologies – American space technology company (2017–2025)
  • Mitsubishi Electric – Japanese electrical equipment, elevator manufacturer, and appliance manufacturer
  • Northrop Grumman – American aerospace and defense company
  • OHB SE – Aerospace company in Bremen, Germany
  • Reshetnev Information Satellite Systems – Russian satellite manufacturing company
  • Space Systems/Loral – American satellite and space systems manufacturer
  • Thales Alenia Space – Satellite manufacturer
  • Specialized and medium-class manufacturers

Operators

  • Commercial constellation operators
  • AST SpaceMobile – American satellite manufacturer
  • Lynk Global – American satellite communications company
  • Project Kuiper – Amazon satellite constellation and internet service
  • Telesat Lightspeed – Canadian satellite communications company
  • Communications satellite operators
  • Global and multinational communications operators
Satellite uplink dishes at SES S.A. in Betzdorf, Luxembourg.
  • EchoStar – Global satellite services provider
  • Eutelsat – French-based satellite provider
  • Hughes Network Systems – High-speed satellite internet service provider
  • Intelsat – Luxembourgish communications satellite services provider
  • Iridium Communications – American satellite communications company
  • SES S.A. – Communications satellite owner and operator
  • Telesat – Canadian satellite communications company
  • Viasat – American communications company
  • Low Earth orbit and mobile communications operators
  • O3b – Group of telecommunications satellites
  • Orbcomm – American wireless networking and telecommunications company
  • Starlink – SpaceX satellite Internet constellation
  • Swarm Technologies – US telecommunications company
  • Regional communications operators
  • ABS (satellite operator) – Dubai-based operator of communication satellites
  • APT Satellite Holdings – Bermuda-incorporated holding company
  • Arabsat – Arab satellite operator
  • AsiaSat – Hong Kong-based commercial operator of communications satellites
  • Avanti Communications
  • Hispasat – Spanish satellite operator
  • JSAT Corporation – First private Japanese satellite operator
  • Spacecom – Israeli communications satellite operator
  • Thaicom – Thai company
  • Yahsat – Satellite communications company
  • Earth observation satellite operators
  • Commercial Earth observation operators
First pair of twenty-eight (28) Planet Labs satellites launched from the International Space Station via the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer in 2014.
  • Airbus Defence and Space – Division of Airbus
  • BlackSky – American aerospace company
  • Capella Space – American space company
  • DigitalGlobe – American space imagery company
  • GeoEye – American commercial satellite imaging company
  • ICEYE – Finnish microsatellite manufacturer
  • ImageSat International – Israeli commercial Earth observation satellite series
  • Maxar Technologies – American space technology company (2017–2025)
  • Planet Labs – American space technology company
  • Satellogic – American space technology company
  • SI Imaging Services – South Korean aerospace company
  • Skybox Imaging – Constellation of small Earth observation satellites
  • Spire Global – Space-to-cloud data and analytics company
  • Government and public Earth observation operators
  • U.S. Geological Survey – Scientific agency of the US government
  • Military satellite operators
  • Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps – Aerospace service branch of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
  • Defence Space Agency – Indian Armed Forces Agency/Unit responsible for space warfare
  • National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency – US DoD division
  • Space Operations Command – U.S. Space Force command
  • Space Systems Command – U.S. Space Force space development, acquisition, launch, and logistics field command
  • Navigation satellite operators
  • Cabinet Office (Japan) – Agency in the Cabinet of Japan
  • European Union Agency for the Space Programme – Agency of the European Union
  • Galileo (satellite navigation) – European global navigation satellite system
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • Satellite-based augmentation system – Method of improving a navigation system
  • U.S. Space Force – Space service branch of the U.S. military

Space agencies

  • Civil space agencies
  • African civil space agencies
  • Asian civil space agencies
Depiction of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's IKAROS, the first craft with solar sails as main propulsion system. IKAROS launched with Akatsuiki, the Venus climate orbiter, from Tanegashima Space Center.
  • European civil space agencies
  • Global and multinational agencies
  • North American civil space agencies
  • Canadian Space Agency – Government agency
  • Mexican Space Agency – National space agency of Mexico
  • NASA – American space and aeronautics agency
  • Oceanian civil space agencies
  • South American civil space agencies
  • International space organizations
  • Meteorological satellite agencies
  • Meteorological satellite agencies by country
  • China Meteorological Administration – Meteorological agency of the People's Republic of China
  • India Meteorological Department – Meteorological agency of the Government of India
  • Japan Meteorological Agency – National meteorological service of Japan
  • Korea Meteorological Administration – Meteorological service of South Korea
  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – US government scientific agency
  • Global and international meteorological satellite agencies
The member states of the World Meteorological Organization divided into their six regional associations, shown on a world map.
  • Military space agencies
  • Chinese military space agencies
  • People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force – Former cyber and space force of the People's Liberation Army (2015–2024)
  • French military space agencies
  • French Space Command – Space command of the French Air and Space Force
  • Indian military space agencies
  • Defence Space Agency – Indian Armed Forces Agency/Unit responsible for space warfare
  • Iranian military space agencies
  • Aerospace Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps – Aerospace service branch of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
  • Russian military space agencies
  • U.S. military space agencies
  • Space Development Agency – U.S. federal agency
  • Space Operations Command – U.S. Space Force command
  • Space Systems Command – U.S. Space Force space development, acquisition, launch, and logistics field command
  • U.S. Space Command – Unified command of the U.S. Department of Defense
  • U.S. Space Force – Space service branch of the U.S. military

Satellite programs, series, and constellations

Communications programs and constellations

Communications satellite programs include geostationary systems that provide services from apparently fixed positions, non-geostationary constellations in low or medium Earth orbit that provide broadband coverage, and mobile-satellite systems that support users away from fixed terminals.[152][210][37] Government and relay systems add specialized links for military, tactical, civil-space, or spacecraft-to-ground communications, including inter-satellite relay networks that pass mission data through other spacecraft.[211][212][213]

  • Geostationary communications satellite series
The launch of the Falcon 9 rocket carrying Arabsat-6A.
  • ABS-3A – All-electric geostationary communications satellite
  • Afghansat 1 – Communications satellite
  • Amazonas 5 – Spanish communications satellite
  • Arabsat-6A – Saudi Arabian communications satellite
  • AsiaSat 3S – Asiasat communications satellite
  • Astra 1M – Communications satellite
  • Atlantic Bird – Series of satellites
  • Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a – Azerbaijani communications satellite
  • Azerspace-2 – Telecommunications satellite
  • Badr-4
  • Belintersat-1 – Telecommunications satellite
  • BulgariaSat-1 – Geostationary communications satellite
  • Hot Bird – French satellite company
  • Telkom-4 – Indonesian communications satellite
  • Yuri (satellite) – Japanese satellite
  • Low Earth orbit broadband constellations
  • Atlantic Constellation – European constellation of Earth observation satellites
  • Balkan Constellation – European satellite constellation for Earth observation
  • Bureau 1440 – Russian satellite internet constellation
  • E-Space – Satellite communications company
  • Hydra (satellite constellation) – Spanish thermal imaging satellite constellation
  • Mobile communications constellations
  • ACeS
  • AfriStar – Satellite
  • AsiaStar – American space communications satellite
  • Garuda 1 – Indonesian communications satellite
  • SkyTerra – Former telecommunications company
  • TerreStar-1
  • Government communications systems
The installation of a Mobile User Objective System satellite dish at NCTAMS PAC in Wahiawā, Hawaii.
  • Commercial communications operators
  • Inter-satellite relay systems

Earth observation programs

Earth observation programs use satellites and constellations to collect repeated measurements of Earth's land, oceans, atmosphere, ice, and human activity.[214][215][216] Major programs include long-running public missions such as Landsat,[217] the Copernicus Programme,[218] Earth Observing System,[219][220] Cartosat,[221] along with disaster-monitoring and commercial imaging constellations.[222][223]

  • Landsat program
  • Landsat 2 – American earth observation satellite (1975–1982)
  • Landsat 3 – American earth observation satellite (1978–1983)
  • Landsat 4 – American earth observation satellite (1982–2001)
  • Landsat 6 – American earth observation satellite
  • Sentinel satellites
  • Sentinel-1A – European radar imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-1B – European radar imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-1C – European radar imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-2A – European optical imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-2B – European optical imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-2C – European optical imaging satellite
  • Sentinel-3A – ESA Earth observation satellite
  • Sentinel-3B – ESA Earth observation satellite
  • Earth Observing System
  • Cartosat satellites
The Indian Space Research Organisation's Cartosat-2D, which achieved sun-synchronous orbit as a Cartosat earth observation satellite.
  • Cartosat-1 – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2 – Indian Earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2A – Indian Earth observation satellite, 2008–2025
  • Cartosat-2B – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2C – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2D – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2E – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-2F – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Cartosat-3 – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Resourcesat satellites
  • Resourcesat-1 – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Resourcesat-2A – Indian Earth observation satellite
  • Disaster Monitoring Constellation
  • Deimos-1 – Spanish Earth imaging satellite
  • UK-DMC 2 – British remote sensing satellite
  • Commercial Earth imaging constellations
  • BlackSky Pathfinder-1 – Earth imaging satellite launched in 2016
  • Dove-2 – Earth observation satellite
  • ÑuSat – Series of Argentinean commercial Earth observation satellites
  • SkySat – Constellation of small Earth observation satellites
  • WorldView-1 – Commercial Earth observation satellite
  • WorldView-2 – Commercial Earth observation satellite
  • WorldView-4 – American Earth observation satellite

Military and reconnaissance programs

Military and reconnaissance satellites, spacecraft, and constellations are built for defense communications, missile warning, surveillance, and intelligence collection.[224][225][226] They include generations of secure communications systems, infrared warning constellations, and photographic, electro-optical, radar, signals-intelligence, and other reconnaissance programs operated by national security agencies and armed forces.[225][227][228][229][230]

  • Advanced Extremely High Frequency
  • Corona program
  • CORONA (satellite) – American reconnaissance satellites (1959–1972)[8]
  • Discoverer 1 – American reconnaissance satellite launched in 1959; failed to achieve orbit
  • Discoverer 13 – American reconnaissance satellite
  • Discoverer 14 – American reconnaissance satellite
  • KH-7 Gambit – Series of United States reconnaissance satellites
  • KH-8 Gambit 3 – Series of United States reconnaissance satellites
  • KH-9 Hexagon – American family of spy satellites
  • Defense Support Program
  • Indian reconnaissance programs
  • Space Based Surveillance project (India) – Multi-phased Indian programme to launch spy satellites
  • Keyhole satellites
STS-36 launch for Atlantis, which deployed the U.S. National Reconnaissance Office's classified stealth technology reconnaissance satellites under the Zirconic program.
  • Lacrosse satellites
  • COSMO-SkyMed – Italian radar observation satellite system
  • Onyx (satellite) – Series of American terrestrial radar imaging reconnaissance satellites
  • SAR-Lupe – German military reconnaissance satellite system
  • TerraSAR-X – German Earth observation satellite
  • Oko satellites
  • Oko – Soviet (now Russian) satellite-based early warning system for ballistic missiles
  • Skynet satellites
  • Airbus Defence and Space – Division of Airbus
  • Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) – UK Government department responsible for defence
  • Skynet (satellite) – Communications satellite
  • Yaogan satellites
  • Yaogan – Chinese military reconnaissance satellite program

Navigation satellite systems are long-running infrastructure programs that provide positioning, navigation, and timing services through constellations of dedicated spacecraft.[231][232] They include global systems, regional systems, augmentation systems, replacement satellite blocks, and earlier navigation programs that were superseded as satellite navigation matured.[231][233][234][235].

  • Global Positioning System
  • GPS Block II – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • GPS Block IIA – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • GPS Block IIF – Operational generation of GPS satellites
  • GPS Block IIR – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • GPS Block III – Current generation of GPS satellites
  • GPS IIR-1 – First of new class of GPS satellite, destroyed soon after launch in January 1997
  • Navstar 7 – Failed American navigation satellite
  • Wide Area GPS Enhancement
  • GLONASS
  • Galileo
  • GIOVE – European Space Agency satellites
  • BeiDou
  • Compass-G1 – Chinese navigation satellite
  • Compass-IGSO1 – Chinese navigation satellite
  • Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
  • IRNSS-1A – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1B – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1C – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1D – Indian Earth observation satellite, 2015–2025
  • IRNSS-1E – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1F – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1G – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1H – Indian navigation satellite
  • IRNSS-1I – Indian navigation satellite
  • NVS-01 – Indian navigation satellite
  • NVS-02 – Indian navigation satellite
  • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
Artist's rendering of the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System's QZS-6 craft in orbit.
  • QZS-1 – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • QZS-1R – Japanese navigation satellite
  • QZS-2 – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • QZS-3 – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • QZS-4 – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • QZS-5 – Japanese navigation satellite
  • QZS-6 – Japanese navigation satellite
  • QZS-7 – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • Defunct navigation systems
  • Nadezhda (satellite)
  • Parus (satellite) – Soviet/Russian communication and navigation satellite constellation
  • Transit 3B – American satellite designed to study geodesy
  • Transit 5E-1 – Artificial satellite of the United States Department of Defense
  • Tsikada

Scientific satellite programs

Scientific satellite programs use space-based observatories and instrumented spacecraft to make measurements that are blocked, blurred, or otherwise limited from the ground.[236][237] They include mission lines, observatory families, instruments, science centers, and servicing programs used to study the universe, the cosmic microwave background, the heliosphere, and the space environment.[237][238][239][240][241][203]

  • Chandra X-ray Observatory
An image of the Chandra Deep Field South in the Fornax constellation, captured by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. Chandra gives a distance estimate of about 11.9 to 12.9 billion light-years for the distant galaxies studied in this field.
  • Cosmic Background Explorer
  • Explorer program
  • Great Observatories program
  • Hubble Space Telescope
  • Planck spacecraft
  • Spitzer Space Telescope
  • Infrared Array Camera
  • Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer – NASA infrared space telescope (2003–2020)
  • Spitzer Science Center – Private university in Pasadena, California
  • Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
The Andromeda Galaxy imaged by the Spitzer Space Telescope.

Weather satellite series

  • Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
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The first image from the GOES-1 satellite in 1975 (black and white). Below, an image of Earth from Elektro-L No.3 in 2025 (color).
  • Himawari satellite series
  • Television Infrared Observation Satellites
  • TIROS-2 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-3 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-4 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-5 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-6 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-7 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-8 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-9 – Former American weather satellite
  • TIROS-M – Deactivated weather satellite
  • Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites
  • NOAA-2 – Weather satellite (1972–1975)
  • NOAA-3 – Deactivated weather satellite
  • NOAA-4 – Weather satellite operated by NOAA
  • NOAA-5 – Weather satellite operated by NOAA
  • NOAA-6 – American weather satellite
  • NOAA-7 – Weather satellite (1981–1986)
  • NOAA-8 – Weather satellite
  • NOAA-9 – American weather satellite
  • NOAA-10 – American weather satellite
  • NOAA-11 – American weather satellite (1988–2004)
  • NOAA-12 – American weather satellite (1991–2007)
  • NOAA-14 – American weather satellite (1994–2007)
  • NOAA-15 – American weather satellite (1998–2025)
  • NOAA-16 – American weather satellite (2000–2014)
  • NOAA-17 – American weather satellite (2002–2013)
  • NOAA-18 – American weather satellite (2005–2025)
  • Meteor satellites
  • Meteor-1 1
  • Meteor-3M No.1 – Weather satellite
  • Meteor-M No.1 – Russian weather satellite (2009–2014)
  • Meteor-M No.2 – Russian weather satellite
  • Meteor-M No.2-1 – Russian space satellite
  • Meteor-M No.2-2
  • Other weather satellite series

Satellite systems

A satellite system connects an operating spacecraft with the ground infrastructure, users, radio links, and control processes needed to run the mission and deliver useful data or services.[2][190][186]: 1  Its major parts include the ground segment, space segment, payloads, and tracking, telemetry, and command functions that connect the spacecraft to operators and end users.[2][190][7]

Ground segment

The ground segment is the Earth-based part of a satellite mission, linking spacecraft operations to command uplinks, telemetry reception, payload-data delivery, calibration, validation, and user access.[190][242][243][244] It includes ground stations, mission control centers, control networks, processing centers, teleports, and user terminals.[190][242][244][186]: 1 

  • Calibration and validation sites
  • Data processing centers
James Webb Space Telescope mirrors assembled at Goddard Space Flight Center, May 2016.
  • Ground stations
  • Mission control centers
  • Satellite control networks
  • Teleports
  • User terminals

Payloads

A satellite payload is the mission equipment carried to perform the satellite's useful work, distinct from the spacecraft bus that supports it.[245][246] Payloads may observe, measure, relay, navigate, time, image, or sense using instruments such as cameras,[247] radar,[248] radiometers,[249] sounders,[250][251] spectrometers,[252][253] magnetometers,[254][255] particle detectors,[256][257] transponders,[258] and clocks.[259]

  • Altimeters
  • Electrostatic Gravity Gradiometer – ESA satellite to map Earth's gravity field
  • Jason satellite series – Series of Earth observation satellites
  • Ka-band Radar Interferometer – NASA/CNES oceanography mission (2022–present)
  • Radar for Europa Assessment and Sounding: Ocean to Near-surface – Ice-penetrating radar for Europa Clipper
  • TOPEX/Poseidon – Satellite mission to map ocean surface topography
  • Communications payloads
  • Imaging payloads
  • Infrared payloads
FINESSE would provide uniquely detailed atmospheric information on exoplanets.
  • Magnetometers
  • Navigation payloads
  • Particle detectors
  • Radiometers
  • Radar payloads
The surface of Venus, as imaged by the Magellan probe using synthetic-aperture radar, colorized with false color.
  • Scientific instruments
  • Sounders
  • Spectrometers
The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph on its handling cart in the Spacecraft Systems Development Facility cleanroom at the Goddard Space Flight Center.
  • Timing payloads

Space segment

The space segment is the orbital part of a satellite system: the spacecraft, its payloads, onboard computers, software, and support subsystems operating in space.[260][261] It includes the spacecraft bus, power, thermal control, propulsion, communications, command and data handling, fault protection, attitude control, structure, and payload subsystems.[2][197][262]

  • Attitude determination and control system
  • Command and data handling system
  • Communications subsystem
The deployed Inflatable Antenna Experiment.
  • Fault protection
  • Onboard computer
  • Payload subsystem
  • Power system
  • Propulsion system
A 6 kW xenon electric propulsion Hall thruster in operation at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
  • Spacecraft bus
  • Structure
  • Monocoque – Structural design that supports loads through an object's external skin
  • Spacecraft structure – Vehicle or machine designed to fly in space
  • Thermal control system

Tracking, telemetry, and command

The spacecraft and ground operators are connected during routine operations and contingencies through tracking, telemetry, commanding, and communications links.[190][242][7] Tracking determines spacecraft position, telemetry reports spacecraft health and status, and commanding sends instructions to the satellite, with communications security protecting control and data flows.[190][263][264]

  • Tracking
File:Lustbühel Satellite Laser Tacking.jpg
Satellite laser ranging at the Lustbühel Observatory near Graz, Austria.
  • Telemetry and commanding
  • Downlink – Communication channel between two or more devices
  • Link budget – Accounting of signal gains and losses in communications
  • Telecommand – Method of controlling a remote system
  • Telemetry – Automatic collection and transmission of data
  • Transponder (satellite communications) – Device or series of devices that receive, then transmit (relay) a signal[5]
  • Uplink – Communication channel between two or more devices
  • Ground infrastructure
  • Security

Space environment, hazards, and security

Satellites operate in a contested and hazardous space environment shaped by orbital debris, collision risk, electromagnetic interference, cyber threats, radiation, meteoroids, and military counterspace systems.[179][265][266][267][268][269][270] Major security topics include anti-satellite weapons, space situational awareness, collision avoidance, signal jamming and spoofing, spacecraft hardening, cybersecurity, and debris mitigation.[271][270][263][264][272][179]

Anti-satellite weapons

Anti-satellite weapons and related counterspace systems are used or developed to disrupt, degrade, damage, or destroy satellites and space services.[270][271] Major categories include direct-ascent weapons, co-orbital systems, directed-energy weapons, electronic attacks such as jamming or spoofing, and cyberattacks against space systems.[270][271]

  • Co-orbital and directed-energy anti-satellite weapons
  • Direct-ascent anti-satellite weapons
  • 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test – Largest field of space debris in history
  • Anti-satellite missile – Kinetic energy device designed to destroy satellites in orbit
  • Anti-satellite weapon – Kinetic energy device designed to destroy satellites in orbit
  • ASM-135 ASAT
  • Kosmos 1408 – Soviet artificial satellite destroyed by an ASAT missile
  • Mission Shakti – First Indian anti-satellite weapon test
  • SC-19
  • USA-193 – U.S. military satellite (2006–2008)
  • Electronic anti-satellite attacks
File:BLACK SKIES 22- STARCOM debuts new cyber warfare exercise (7426228).jpeg
United States Space Force personnel operating a satellite antenna during an electromagnetic warfare military exercise.

Collisions and collision avoidance

Satellites, rocket bodies, and orbital debris are tracked to predict close approaches, assess conjunction risk, and support maneuvers that reduce the chance of collision.[179][207][265] This area includes collision events, debris-producing events, orbital-debris mitigation, end-of-life disposal, active debris removal, reentry risk, and space situational awareness systems used to monitor objects in orbit.[179][207][265][209]

  • Close approaches
  • Collision avoidance (spacecraft) – Form of collision management in aeronautics
  • Satellite Catalog Number – NORAD satellite identifier
  • Collision avoidance maneuvers
  • Collision avoidance (spacecraft) – Form of collision management in aeronautics
  • Conjunction assessment
  • Collision avoidance (spacecraft) – Form of collision management in aeronautics
  • Satellite Catalog Number – NORAD satellite identifier
  • Satellite collisions and debris-producing events
  • 2009 satellite collision – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
  • 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test – Largest field of space debris in history
  • Iridium 33 – Communications satellite operated by Iridium Communications
  • Kosmos 1408 – Soviet artificial satellite destroyed by an ASAT missile
  • Kosmos 2251 – Defunct Russian military communications satellite, operational from 1993 to 1995
  • List of space debris producing events
  • Operation Burnt Frost – 2008 military operation to destroy a non-functioning U.S. satellite
  • Satellite collision – Collision involving one or more satellites in orbit
  • Space situational awareness and surveillance

Signal interference, hardening, and cybersecurity

Satellite security covers threats to spacecraft, ground systems, radio links, and user equipment, including cyberattack, jamming, spoofing, electromagnetic interference,[273] and the radiation environment.[264][267][266][268][274] Responses include computer security, radiation hardening, spectrum monitoring,[275] interference reporting, anti-jam and anti-spoofing measures,[276] and other protections that preserve command, communications, navigation, and mission data.[263][277][272][278][279]

  • Cybersecurity
  • Satellite protection and hardening
  • Radiation hardening – Making devices resist ionizing radiation
  • Space situational awareness – Surveillance from and of the outer space environment
  • Satellite jamming and spoofing
  • Spectrum monitoring
Space debris populations seen from outside geosynchronous orbit (GEO). Note the two primary debris fields, the ring of objects in GEO, and the cloud of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO).

Space debris includes defunct satellites, spent rocket bodies, fragments, and other human-made objects that remain in orbit and can threaten operational spacecraft.[280][281][282][283] Debris work includes tracking and cataloging objects, preventing new debris through mitigation and disposal practices, removing selected objects, managing reentry risk, and studying cascade risks such as Kessler syndrome alongside related particle hazards from micrometeoroids.[284][285][286]

  • Debris mitigation
  • Debris removal
RemoveDEBRIS was a satellite research project intending to demonstrate various space debris removal technologies.
  • ClearSpace-1 – Planned European mission to demonstrate space debris removal
  • RemoveDEBRIS – Project to demonstrate various space debris removal technologies
  • Debris tracking
  • Kessler syndrome
  • Micrometeoroids
  • Meteoroid – Sand- to boulder-sized particle of debris in the Solar System
  • Micrometeoroid – Meteoroid with a mass of less than one gram
  • Orbital debris

Lists of satellites

General lists

STARSHINE deployed from Endeavour during STS-108 in 2001.

Satellites by country

  Orbital launch and satellite operation
  Satellite operation, launched by foreign supplier
  Satellite in development
  Orbital launch project at advanced stage or indigenous ballistic missiles deployed

First satellites by country

  • First artificial satellite by country
  • First domestic satellite programs
File:20090829 Model of Fengyun-2 4002.JPG
Model of a Fengyun 2 meteorological satellite in the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum.
  • First national communications satellites
Dong Fang Hong 2 was China's first satellite.
  • Al Yah 1 – Communications satellite
  • Alcomsat-1 – Algerian communications satellite
  • AMOS (satellite) – Series of Israeli communications satellites
  • Anik (satellite) – Series of Canadian satellites by Telesat
  • Arab Satellite Communications Organization – Arab satellite operator
  • Astra (satellite) – Geostationary communication satellites
  • Bangladesh Satellite-1 – First Bangladeshi geostationary communications satellite
  • Brasilsat A1 – Brazilian communications satellite
  • Chinasat – Brand name of communications satellites
  • Dong Fang Hong 2
  • Hispasat – Spanish satellite operator
  • Indian National Satellite System – Series of multipurpose geo-stationary satellites launched by ISRO
  • INSAT-1A – Indian geostationary communications satellite
  • INSAT-1B – Defunct Indian communications and meteorology satellite
  • JSAT (satellite constellation) – Japanese commercial satellite constellation
  • Koreasat – South Korean communications satellites
  • MEASAT Satellite Systems – Malaysian Satellite Service System
  • Morelos Satellite System – Series of Mexican communications satellites
  • NigComSat-1 – Communication satellite in Nigeria
  • Nilesat – Egyptian satellite communication company
  • Nilesat 101 – Egyptian communication satellite
  • Palapa – Indonesian geostationary communications satellites
  • Thaicom – Thai company
  • Türksat (satellite) – Turkish communications satellites
  • First national Earth observation satellites

Satellites by international organization

  • EUMETSAT satellites
Illustration of the Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich spacecraft in orbit above Earth with its deployable solar panels extended.
  • Arctic Weather Satellite – European weather satellite
  • EPS-Sterna – European weather satellite constellation
  • EUMETSAT – European intergovernmental organisation
  • Jason satellite series – Series of Earth observation satellites
  • Jason-3 – International Earth observation satellite mission
  • Meteosat – Series of european weather satellites
  • Meteosat 8 – European weather satellite (2002–2022)
  • MetOp – Series of European meteorological satellites
  • MetOp-SG – European meteorological satellites
  • MTG-I1 – European Geosynchronous Meteorology satellite
  • OSTM/Jason-2 – International Earth observation satellite mission
  • Sentinel-3 – Earth observation satellite series
  • Sentinel-4 – Series of European Earth observation satellite missions
  • Sentinel-5 Precursor – European Earth observation satellite
  • Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich – Earth observation satellite
  • European Space Agency satellites
Rendering of the European Space Agency's Biomass satellite.
  • ADM-Aeolus – Wind-measuring satellite
  • BepiColombo – ESA/JAXA mission to study Mercury in orbit (2018–present)
  • Biomass (satellite) – European earth observation satellite
  • CHEOPS – European optical space telescope launched in 2019
  • Cluster II (spacecraft) – European Space Agency space mission
  • Copernicus Programme – EU Earth-observation programme
  • CryoSat – ESA programme monitoring polar ice using satellites
  • CryoSat-2 – European Space Agency environmental research satellite
  • EarthCARE – European/Japanese Earth research satellite
  • Envisat – ESA Earth observation satellite (2002–2012)
  • Euclid (space telescope) – European visible and near-infrared space observatory, launched in 2023
  • European Remote-Sensing Satellite – European Space Agency Earth-observing satellite program
  • European Space Agency – European organisation dedicated to space exploration
  • Gaia (spacecraft) – European optical space observatory for astrometry
  • Giotto (spacecraft) – European mission to comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup (1985–1992)
  • GOCE – ESA satellite to map Earth's gravity field
  • Herschel Space Observatory – ESA space telescope in service 2009–2013
  • Hipparcos – European Space Agency scientific satellite
  • Huygens (spacecraft) – First spacecraft to land on Titan
  • INTEGRAL – European space telescope for observing gamma rays
  • Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer – European mission to study Jupiter and its moons since 2023
  • LISA Pathfinder – 2015 European Space Agency spacecraft
  • Mars Express – European orbiter mission to Mars (2003–present)
  • Planck (spacecraft) – Space observatory
  • PROBA – European Space Agency satellite
  • PROBA-2 – European Space Agency satellite
  • PROBA-3 – European Space Agency mission
  • PROBA-V – European Space Agency satellite
  • Rosetta (spacecraft) – European mission to study Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (2004–2016)
  • Sentinel-1 – Earth observation satellite
  • Sentinel-2 – Earth observation mission
  • Sentinel-3 – Earth observation satellite series
  • Sentinel-5 Precursor – European Earth observation satellite
  • SMART-1 – European Space Agency satellite that orbited the Moon
  • Solar Orbiter – European space-based solar observatory
  • Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity – ESA earth observation satellite
  • Swarm (spacecraft) – ESA's space program to study Earth's magnetic field
  • Venus Express – European orbiter mission to Venus (2005–2015)
  • XMM-Newton – X-ray space observatory
  • International satellite programs
Italian Peninsula and the Mediterranean Sea, image captured by Copernicus Programme Sentinel-3A in 2016.
  • Multinational satellite programs

Satellites by major spacefaring country

  • Satellites of Brazil
Brazil's CBERS-4 at China in 2014. A remote sensing satellite, CBERS-4 is part of the China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program.
  • AESP-14 – Brazilian cubesat
  • Amazônia-1 – Brazilian earth observation satellite
  • Brasilsat A1 – Brazilian communications satellite
  • CBERS-1 – First satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • CBERS-2 – Second satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • CBERS-2B – Chinese-Brazilian remote sensing satellite
  • CBERS-3 – Chinese-Brazilian remote sensing satellite
  • CBERS-4 – Chinese-Brazilian remote sensing satellite
  • China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program – Satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • Geostationary Satellite for Defense and Strategic Communications – Brazilian geostationary communication satellite
  • List of Brazilian satellites
  • SABIA-Mar – Dual satellite joint Earth observation mission
  • SACI-1 – Brazilian satellite
  • Satélite de Coleta de Dados – Brazilian satellites
  • Satélite de Reentrada Atmosférica
  • Satélite Tecnológico – Brazilian satellite
  • Tancredo-1 – Brazilian satellite
  • UNOSAT (satellite) – Brazilian scientific nanosatellite
  • Satellites of China
  • BeiDou – Chinese global navigation satellite system
  • BeiDou-3 M1 – Chinese navigation satellites
  • China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program – Satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • ChinaSat 9 – Chinese communications satellite
  • ChinaSat 9A – Chinese communications satellite
  • ChinaSat 10 – Chinese communications satellite
  • Chinasat – Brand name of communications satellites
  • Dong Fang Hong 1 – First satellite launched by China in 1970
  • Dong Fang Hong 2
  • Dongfanghong program – Satellite program of the People's Republic of China
  • Fengyun – Chinese weather satellites
  • Gaofen – Chinese earth imaging satellites
  • Haiyang (satellite) – Chinese ocean observation satellite
  • Huanjing (satellite) – Chinese environmental monitoring satellites
  • Jilin-1 – Chinese commercial satellite system
  • Pujiang-1 – Chinese technology demonstration satellite
  • Quantum Experiments at Space Scale – Chinese quantum research satellite
  • Shijian – Series of Chinese satellites
  • Shiyan (satellite) – Chinese satellite program
  • TanSat – Chinese observation satellite
  • Tianhui (satellite)
  • Tianlian – Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System
  • Tiantong (satellite) – Chinese mobile communications satellite system
  • Yaogan – Chinese military reconnaissance satellite program
  • Ziyuan (satellite) – Chinese remote sensing satellites
  • Satellites of France
The Pléiades is a satellite constellation of optical Earth-imaging satellites.
  • Astérix (satellite) – First French satellite
  • Athena-Fidus – French-Italian telecommunication satellite
  • CALIPSO – Environmental satellite
  • CERES (satellite) – French military satellite program
  • Cerise (satellite) – French military reconnaissance satellite
  • CoRoT – European space telescope that operated between 2006 – 2014
  • Demeter (satellite) – French micro-satellite
  • Diadème (satellites) – Pair of French artificial satellites
  • Helios 2 (satellite) – 2000s European military observation satellites
  • Hélios 1B – French military reconnaissance satellite (1999–2004)
  • Jason-1 – Satellite oceanography mission
  • Jason-3 – International Earth observation satellite mission
  • Megha-Tropiques – Indian-French weather satellite
  • Parasol (satellite) – French Earth observation satellite
  • Picard (satellite) – Solar science research satellite
  • Pléiades (satellite) – French Earth observation satellite
  • Proteus (satellite) – Satellite platform built by Thales Group
  • SPOT (satellite) – Commercial Earth-imaging satellite system operated by the French space agency CNES
  • Syracuse (satellite) – French military communications satellite constellation
  • TOPEX/Poseidon – Satellite mission to map ocean surface topography
  • VENμS – Earth observation microsatellite
  • Satellites of Germany
  • ABRIXAS – Space-based German X-ray telescope
  • AEROS
  • Azur (satellite) – West Germany's first scientific satellite
  • BIRD (satellite) – German infrared detection satellite
  • CHAMP (satellite) – Geoscientific space mission
  • DFS Kopernikus
  • DLR-Tubsat – German satellite
  • EnMAP – German hyperspectral satellite launched in 2022
  • EuCROPIS – German satellite
  • GRACE and GRACE-FO – Joint American-German space mission to map Earth's gravitational field
  • ROSAT – Satellite X-ray telescope
  • SAR-Lupe – German military reconnaissance satellite system
  • TanDEM-X – German Earth observation satellite mission
  • TerraSAR-X – German Earth observation satellite
  • TET-1
  • TV-SAT 1
  • TV-Sat 2 – West German communications satellite
  • UWE-2
  • Satellites of India
INSAT-1B was an Indian communications satellite which formed part of the Indian National Satellite System, and launched in 1983.
  • Aryabhata (satellite) – India's first satellite in space (1975–1981)
  • Bhaskara (satellites) – Indian observations satellites
  • Cartosat – Indian Earth observation satellite series
  • EMISAT – Indian reconnaissance satellite
  • GSAT – Series of Indian communications satellites
  • GSAT-7 – Indian Navy communications satellite
  • GSAT-7A – Military communications satellite
  • Indian National Satellite System – Series of multipurpose geo-stationary satellites launched by ISRO
  • Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System – Satellite navigation system
  • Indian Remote Sensing Programme – Series of Earth observation satellites
  • INSAT-1A – Indian geostationary communications satellite
  • INSAT-1B – Defunct Indian communications and meteorology satellite
  • INSAT-3D – Satellite
  • IRS-1A – Indian Earth observation satellite
  • Kalpana-1 – Meteorological satellite
  • Mars Orbiter Mission – Indian orbiter mission to Mars (2013–2022)
  • Megha-Tropiques – Indian-French weather satellite
  • NISAR (satellite) – Joint NASA-ISRO synthetic radar aperture spacecraft
  • Oceansat – Indian class of oceanography satellites
  • RISAT – Series of Indian radar imaging satellites
  • RISAT-1 – Indian Earth observation satellite
  • SARAL – Indian earth observation satellite
  • Satellites of Iran
  • Fajr (satellite) – 2015 imaging satellite of the Iranian Space Agency
  • Khayyam satellite – Iranian satellite
  • Nahid-1 – Failed-to-launch Iranian Earth observation satellite
  • Navid (satellite) – Iranian Earth observation satellite
  • Noor (satellite) – Iranian military satellite
  • Noor 2 (satellite) – Iranian military satellite
  • Noor 3 (satellite) – Iranian military satellite
  • Omid – Iranian communications satellite
  • Rasad 1 – Iranian satellite
  • Sina-1 – Iranian orbital satellite
  • Soraya (satellite) – Iranian satellite
  • Satellites of Israel
TecSAR-1[287] is an Israeli reconnaissance satellite, equipped with a synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) developed by Elta Systems. It was launched in 2008 by the PSLV C-10 launch vehicle, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India.[288]
  • AMOS (satellite) – Series of Israeli communications satellites
  • AMOS-1 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite
  • AMOS-2 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite
  • AMOS-3 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite
  • AMOS-4 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite
  • AMOS-5 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite
  • AMOS-6 (satellite) – AMOS communications satellite destroyed during a launch test
  • BGUSAT – Israeli research satellite
  • EROS (satellite) – Israeli commercial Earth observation satellite series
  • Ofek-16 – Israeli reconnaissance satellite
  • Ofeq – Israeli reconnaissance satellites
  • SHALOM (satellite) – Israel-Italian satellite system
  • TecSAR-1 – Israeli reconnaissance satellite
  • ULTRASAT – Planned space telescope
  • VENμS – Earth observation microsatellite
  • Satellites of Japan
  • Satellites of Russia and the Soviet Union
Zenit (Russian: Зени́т, lit. 'Zenith', ru) was a series of military photoreconnaissance satellites launched by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1994. To conceal their nature, all flights were given the public Kosmos designation.
  • Arktika-M – Meteorology satellite system
  • Bion (satellite) – Soviet and Russian spacecraft aimed at biological experiments in space
  • EKS (satellite system) – Russian early warning satellites
  • Ekspress
  • Foton (satellite) – Russian spacecraft programs
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • GLONASS-K – Class of GLONASS satellites
  • GLONASS-M – Type of Russian GLONASS navigation satellite
  • Gorizont – Russian/Soviet satellites series, launched 1978–2000
  • Kosmos (satellite) – Series of Soviet and Russian military satellites
  • Kosmos 1 – Soviet research satellite
  • Luch (satellite) – Russian data relay system
  • Luna 1 – Soviet spacecraft
  • Luna 3 – Soviet lunar probe launched in 1959
  • Mars 2 – Soviet orbiter and lander mission to Mars (1971–1972)
  • Mars 3 – Soviet orbiter/lander mission to Mars (1971–1972)
  • Meridian (satellite) – Family of communication satellites
  • Meteor (satellite) – Series of weather observation satellites launched by Russia
  • Molniya (satellite) – Soviet military surveillance and communications satellites
  • Oko – Soviet (now Russian) satellite-based early warning system for ballistic missiles
  • Persona (satellite) – Class of Russian reconnaissance satellites
  • Resurs-DK No.1 – Russian Earth observation satellite
  • Sputnik 1 – First artificial Earth satellite[1]
  • Sputnik 2 – Second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit (1957)
  • Sputnik 3 – Third Artificial Earth Satellite
  • Venera 1 – Soviet space probe launched in 1961; first spacecraft to fly by Venus
  • Venera 9 – 1975 Soviet uncrewed space mission to Venus
  • Yantar (satellite) – Series of Russian reconnaissance satellites
  • Zenit (satellite) – Series of Soviet spy satellites, 1961–2004
  • Satellites of South Korea
  • 425 Project – South Korean Reconnaissance satellite Program
  • ANASIS-II – South Korean communication satellite
  • CAS500 – South Korean satellite launched in 2021
  • Chollian – South Korean satellite (2010–2020)
  • Chollian-2A – South Korean weather satellite
  • Chollian-2B – South Korean weather satellite
  • KITSAT-1 – First South Korean satellite
  • KITSAT-2 – 1993 South Korean satellite
  • KITSAT-3 – 1999 South Korean satellite
  • KOMPSAT – South Korean multipurpose satellite
  • KOMPSAT-1 – 1999–2008 South Korean satellite
  • KOMPSAT-2 – South Korean Earth observation satellite
  • KOMPSAT-3 – South Korean Earth observation satellite
  • KOMPSAT-3A – South Korean Earth observation satellite
  • KOMPSAT-5 – South Korean reconnaissance satellite
  • Koreasat – South Korean communications satellites
  • Koreasat 1 – South Korean satellite launched in 2017
  • Koreasat 5 – South Korea's satellite launched in 2006
  • Koreasat 5A – South Korean satellite launched in 2017
  • Koreasat 6 – South Korean satellite launched in 2010
  • Koreasat 7 – South Korean satellite launched in 2017
  • NEXTSat-1 – South Korean satellite launched in 2018
  • NEXTSat-2
  • STSat-1 – South Korean satellite launched in 2003
  • Satellites of the United Kingdom
Ariel 1 satellite model, London Science Museum.
  • Ariel 1 – First British satellite
  • Ariel programme – Early British satellite research programme
  • Prospero (spacecraft) – British experimental satellite launched in 1971
  • Skynet (satellite) – Communications satellite
  • Skynet 5A – British military communications satellite
  • Skynet 5B – British military communications satellite
  • Skynet 5C – British military communications satellite
  • Skynet 5D – Communications satellite launched 2012
  • TechDemoSat-1 – European technology demonstration satellite
  • TopSat – British Earth observation satellite
  • UK-DMC – British remote sensing satellite
  • Satellites of the U.S.
Illustration of the Wideband Global SATCOM satellites.

Satellites by region

  • African satellites
GhanaSat-1 in the middle of three other deploying CubeSats during the Birds-1 mission.
  • AngoSat 1 and AngoSat 2 – Angolan communications satellites.[289][290][291]
  • EgyptSat 1, EgyptSat 2, and EgyptSat-A – Egyptian Earth observation satellites.
  • 1KUNS-PF – Kenyan owned satellite
  • African Space Agency – African Union's space organisation
  • Alcomsat-1 – Algerian communications satellite
  • ETRSS-1 – Ethiopian satellite
  • GhanaSat-1 – First ghanaian spacecraft
  • List of first artificial satellites by country – First artificial satellites launched by country or territory
  • NigComSat-1 – Communication satellite in Nigeria
  • Nilesat – Egyptian satellite communication company
  • Nilesat 101 – Egyptian communication satellite
  • Nilesat 102 – Egyptian communications satellite
  • Nilesat 201 – Egyptian communications satellite
  • SumbandilaSat – South African micro Earth observation satellite
  • SUNSAT – South African amateur radio satellite
  • Asian satellites
View of the Palapa-B2 satellite from Challenger after deployment on STS-41B in 1984.
  • DubaiSat-1 and DubaiSat-2 – Emirati Earth observation satellites.
  • Al Yah 1 – Communications satellite
  • AMOS (satellite) – Series of Israeli communications satellites
  • Aryabhata (satellite) – India's first satellite in space (1975–1981)
  • Bangladesh Satellite-1 – First Bangladeshi geostationary communications satellite
  • BHUTAN-1 – First Bhutanese nanosatellite
  • Cartosat – Indian Earth observation satellite series
  • ChinaSat – Brand name of communications satellites
  • BeiDou-3 M1 – Chinese navigation satellites
  • Dong Fang Hong 1 – First satellite launched by China in 1970
  • GSAT – Series of Indian communications satellites
  • Himawari (satellite) – Geostationary meteorological satellite
  • INSAT – Series of multipurpose geo-stationary satellites launched by ISRO
  • INSAT-1A – Indian geostationary communications satellite
  • INSAT-1B – Defunct Indian communications and meteorology satellite
  • INSAT-3D – Satellite
  • JCSAT – Japanese commercial satellite constellation
  • KOMPSAT – South Korean multipurpose satellite
  • Kwangmyŏngsŏng program – North Korean satellite program
  • List of first artificial satellites by country – First artificial satellites launched by country or territory
  • Oceansat – Indian class of oceanography satellites
  • Ofeq – Israeli reconnaissance satellites
  • Ohsumi (satellite) – First Japanese satellite put into orbit, launched in 1970
  • Omid – Iranian communications satellite
  • Palapa – Indonesian geostationary communications satellites
  • Thaicom – Thai company
  • THEOS (satellite) – Thai Earth observation satellite
  • Yaogan – Chinese military reconnaissance satellite program
  • European satellites
An artist's impression of the United Kingdom's Skynet.
  • Astra (satellite) – Geostationary communication satellites
  • CNES satellites
  • Envisat – ESA Earth observation satellite (2002–2012)
  • Eutelsat – French-based satellite provider
  • European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites – European intergovernmental organisation
  • European Space Agency – European organisation dedicated to space exploration
  • Galileo (satellite navigation) – European global navigation satellite system
  • Galileo satellites
  • Hipparcos – European Space Agency scientific satellite
  • Meteosat – Series of european weather satellites
  • Planck (spacecraft) – Space observatory
  • PROBA – European Space Agency satellite
  • Prospero (satellite) – British experimental satellite launched in 1971
  • Sentinel satellites
  • SES S.A. – Communications satellite owner and operator
  • Skynet (satellite) – Communications satellite
  • SPOT (satellite) – Commercial Earth-imaging satellite system operated by the French space agency CNES
  • XMM-Newton – X-ray space observatory
  • North American satellites
Discovery deploying a Mexican Morelos satellite.
  • GPS satellites – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • Landsat program – American network of Earth-observing satellites for international research purposes
  • MEXSAT – Network of communications satellites operated by the Mexican government
  • Morelos (satellite) – Series of Mexican communications satellites
  • NASA – American space and aeronautics agency
  • RADARSAT
  • SCISAT-1 – Canadian satellite
  • Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System – Network of American communications satellites[7]
  • U.S. Space Force – Space service branch of the U.S. military
  • Oceanian satellites
  • Aussat – Australian telecommunications company
  • Biarri-Point
  • FedSat – Australian scientific research satellite
  • Kea Aerospace – New Zealand aerospace company
  • M2 (satellite)
  • Optus (satellite) – List of communications satellites
  • Optus A1 – List of communications satellites
  • Optus A2 – List of communications satellites
  • Optus A3 – List of communications satellites
  • Optus B1 – List of communications satellites
  • Optus B3 – List of communications satellites
  • Optus D3 – Australian geostationary communications satellite
  • Rocket Lab – American public spaceflight company
  • Sky Muster – Geostationary (GEO) communications satellites operated by NBN Co Limited
  • WRESAT – First Australian satellite
  • South American satellites
File:Mujicafasat.gif
FASat-Alfa was to be Chile's first satellite. The Alpha launch in 1995 was unsuccessful, when the satellite failed to deploy from a paired Ukrainian craft. In 1998, the Bravo launch was successful.
  • FASat-Alfa and FASat-Bravo – Chilean satellites.
  • VRSS-1 and VRSS-2 – Venezuelan remote sensing satellites.
  • Amazônia-1 – Brazilian earth observation satellite
  • ARSAT – Argentine government-owned telecommunications company incorporated in 2006
  • ARSAT-1 – Argentine geostationary communications satellite
  • ARSAT-2 – Argentine geostationary communications satellite
  • ARSAT-SG1
  • Brasilsat
  • Brasilsat A1 – Brazilian communications satellite
  • Brasilsat A2 – Brazilian geostationary communication satellite
  • Brasilsat B1 – Brazilian communications satellite
  • Brasilsat B2 – Brazilian communications satellite
  • CBERS-1 – First satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • CBERS-2 – Second satellite cooperation program between China and Brazil
  • CBERS-4 – Chinese-Brazilian remote sensing satellite
  • SGDC – Brazilian geostationary communication satellite
  • SUCHAI
  • VENESAT-1

Lists by country and operator

Lists by mission

SM-65B Atlas with SCORE; the rocket without booster was the satellite.
  • Communications satellite lists
  • Earth observation satellite lists
  • Navigation satellite lists
  • Reconnaissance and military satellites
  • Scientific and observatory satellites
  • Weather satellite lists

Lists by orbit

Lists by status

Notable satellites and milestones

Milestones by application

  • First active communications relay satellites
Syncom Leasat F4 released "frisbee-style" from the payload bay of space shuttle Columbia on mission STS-32.
  • First broadband satellite constellations
  • First geostationary communications satellites
Westar 6 retrieval during space walk by astronaut Dale Gardner.
  • Anik (satellite) – Series of Canadian satellites by Telesat
  • Applications Technology Satellites – Series of experimental satellites launched by NASA
  • ATS-1 – Early geostationary communications and weather satellite, launched in 1966
  • ATS-6 – NASA experimental satellite
  • Intelsat I – American commercial communications satellite launched in 1965
  • Satcom (satellite) – Family of communications satellites
  • Syncom – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Westar – Fleet of communications satellites
  • First global satellite navigation systems
  • BeiDou – Chinese global navigation satellite system
  • Galileo (satellite navigation system) – European global navigation satellite system
  • Global Positioning System – American satellite-based radio navigation service
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • GPS satellite blocks – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • Timation – American satellites
  • Transit (satellite navigation system) – Satellite navigation system
  • First inter-satellite relay systems
  • First mobile satellite systems
Inmarsat-3 satellite locations.
  • Broadband Global Area Network – Global satellite network
  • Globalstar – Global satellite telecommunications company
  • Inmarsat – British satellite communications company
  • Iridium Communications – American satellite communications company
  • Marisat – Series of communications satellites
  • Mobile satellite service – Service for mobile phones to communicate with satellites
  • Orbcomm – American wireless networking and telecommunications company
  • Satellite phone – Type of mobile phone
  • Thuraya – UAE-based satellite telecommunications company

First satellites by class

  • First artificial satellites
  • First communications satellites
Ncube-2, a 10 cm (3.9 in) diameter satellite.
Cubesat with its outer skin removed.
  • Applications Technology Satellites – Series of experimental satellites launched by NASA
  • ATS-1 – Early geostationary communications and weather satellite, launched in 1966
  • ATS-6 – NASA experimental satellite
  • Courier 1B – 1960 American communications satellite
  • Intelsat I – American commercial communications satellite launched in 1965
  • List of communications satellite firsts
  • Project Echo – First passive communications satellite experiment
  • Relay program – 1960s experimental communications satellites
  • SCORE – First ever communications satellite[5]
  • Syncom – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Telstar 1 – Defunct Communications Satellite
  • First CubeSats
  • First navigation satellites
  • BeiDou – Chinese global navigation satellite system
  • Galileo (satellite navigation system) – European global navigation satellite system
  • Global Positioning System – American satellite-based radio navigation service
  • GLONASS – Russian global navigation satellite system
  • GPS satellite blocks – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System – Satellite navigation system
  • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System – Japanese regional navigation satellite system
  • Timation – American satellites
  • Transit (satellite navigation system) – Satellite navigation system
  • First reconnaissance satellites
  • CORONA (satellite) – American reconnaissance satellites (1959–1972)[8]
  • Discoverer 1 – American reconnaissance satellite launched in 1959; failed to achieve orbit
  • Discoverer 14 – American reconnaissance satellite
  • Galactic Radiation and Background – First US orbital surveillance program
  • Imagery intelligence – Intelligence gathered by means of imagery
  • Reconnaissance satellite – Satellite that covertly collects data for intelligence or military applications[8]
  • Samos (satellite) – Series of reconnaissance satellites for the United States
  • Signals intelligence – Intelligence-gathering by interception of signals
  • Zenit (satellite) – Series of Soviet spy satellites, 1961–2004
  • First national satellite milestones
File:1958-02-03 First US Satellite Launched.ogv
Universal Newsreel about Explorer 1.
  • First scientific satellites
  • First weather satellites
Artist rendering of the instruments aboard TIROS-1.

Historically significant satellites

In 1985, the F-15A Celestial Eagle captained by Wilbert Pearson launched an ASM-135 ASAT anti-satellite missile, destroying Solwind in space.
  • Destroyed satellite milestones
  • 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test – Largest field of space debris in history
  • 2009 satellite collision – First hypervelocity spacecraft collision
  • Iridium 33 – Communications satellite operated by Iridium Communications
  • Kosmos 1408 – Soviet artificial satellite destroyed by an ASAT missile
  • Kosmos 2251 – Defunct Russian military communications satellite, operational from 1993 to 1995
  • Microsat-R – India earth-observing satellite
  • Mission Shakti – First Indian anti-satellite weapon test
  • Operation Burnt Frost – 2008 military operation to destroy a non-functioning U.S. satellite
  • Solwind – Artificial satellite, US Department of Defense
  • USA-193 – U.S. military satellite (2006–2008)
  • Early Cold War satellites
  • CORONA (satellite) – American reconnaissance satellites (1959–1972)[8]
  • Discoverer 1 – American reconnaissance satellite launched in 1959; failed to achieve orbit
  • Discoverer 14 – American reconnaissance satellite
  • Explorer 6 – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
  • Luna 1 – Soviet spacecraft
  • SCORE – First ever communications satellite[5]
  • Sputnik 1 – First artificial Earth satellite[1]
  • Sputnik 2 – Second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit (1957)
  • TIROS-1 – 1960 weather satellite
  • Transit (satellite navigation system) – Satellite navigation system
  • Vanguard 2 – US Navy satellite launched in 1959
  • Early communications satellites
  • Applications Technology Satellites – Series of experimental satellites launched by NASA
  • ATS-1 – Early geostationary communications and weather satellite, launched in 1966
  • Courier 1B – 1960 American communications satellite
  • Intelsat I – American commercial communications satellite launched in 1965
  • Project Echo – First passive communications satellite experiment
  • Echo II – First passive communications satellite experiment
  • Relay program – 1960s experimental communications satellites
  • SCORE – First ever communications satellite[5]
  • Syncom – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Telstar 1 – Defunct Communications Satellite
  • Early Earth observation satellites
Landsat 1 with solar panels deployed after tests at GE Aerospace.
  • Early navigation satellites
  • GPS satellite blocks – Generations of US navigation satellites
  • Timation – American satellites
  • Transit (satellite navigation system) – Satellite navigation system
  • Early weather satellites
  • Failed or lost satellites
Mars Climate Orbiter artists depiction above Mars.
  • Long-lived satellites

Major space observatories

Early full-scale James Webb Space Telescope model on display at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2005.
  • Major cosmic background observatories
  • Major gamma-ray observatories
  • Major infrared observatories
Lab work on the Spitzer Space Telescope before launch.
  • Major optical and ultraviolet observatories
  • Major solar observatories
Depiction of the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager at the sun.
  • Major X-ray observatories

Types of satellites

Artificial satellites can be grouped by mission purpose, operator or country of origin, operational status, size, and spacecraft design.[294][295] Mission-purpose groupings include communications, Earth observation, navigation and positioning, scientific, weather, reconnaissance, amateur, educational, servicing, passive, and technology-demonstration satellites.[296][297][298][299] Other useful groupings describe lifecycle or design, including active, future, inactive, past, failed, derelict, reentered, small, CubeSat, modular, and formation-flying spacecraft.[295][265][297][298][300]

By mission

  • Amateur radio satellites
FUNcube-1 is an educational CubeSat satellite launched to teach young people about radio, space, physics and electronics.
  • Amateur radio satellite – Type of satellite that transmits over amateur radio frequencies
  • AMSAT – Amateur radio satellite organizations
  • FUNcube-1 – Educational CubeSat satellite
  • OSCAR (satellite) – Designation of amateur radio satellites
  • OSCAR 1 – Amateur radio satellite
  • UoSAT-1 – British amateur radio satellite
  • UoSAT-2 – British satellite
  • Biosatellites
  • Bion (satellite) – Soviet and Russian spacecraft aimed at biological experiments in space
  • Bion-M No.1 – Russian space mission
  • BioSentinel – US experimental astrobiology research satellite
  • Biosatellite – Artificial satellite designed to carry plants or animals in outer space
  • Biosatellite program – Series of 3 NASA satellites to assess the effects of spaceflight on living organisms
  • EuCROPIS – German satellite
  • GeneSat-1 – NASA cubesat
  • Korabl-Sputnik 2 – Soviet artificial satellite launched in 1960
  • Sputnik 2 – Second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit (1957)
  • Communications satellites
  • Earth observation satellites
Virginia Norwood, "The Mother of Landsat", designed the Multispectral Scanner.
  • Navigation satellites
  • Passive satellites
  • LAGEOS – NASA scientific research satellites
  • Lincoln Calibration Sphere 1 – Radar calibration satellite
  • List of passive satellites
  • PAGEOS – Passive geodetic satellite launched by NASA in 1966
  • Project Echo – First passive communications satellite experiment
  • STARSHINE (satellite) – Series of satellites
  • Reconnaissance satellite types
US Navy sailor examining reconnaissance imagery on a light table, 2004.
  • CORONA (satellite) – American reconnaissance satellites (1959–1972)
  • COSMO-SkyMed – Italian radar observation satellite system
  • Imagery intelligence – Intelligence gathered by means of imagery
  • KH-7 Gambit – Series of United States reconnaissance satellites
  • KH-8 Gambit 3 – Series of United States reconnaissance satellites
  • KH-9 Hexagon – American family of spy satellites
  • KH-11 KENNEN – Type of American spy satellite
  • Lacrosse (satellite) – Series of American terrestrial radar imaging reconnaissance satellites
  • Military satellite – Artificial satellite used for military purposes[8]
  • Naval Ocean Surveillance System – Series of signals-intelligence satellites of the U.S. Navy
  • White Cloud – Series of signals-intelligence satellites of the U.S. Navy
  • Ofeq – Israeli reconnaissance satellites
  • Reconnaissance satellite – Satellite that covertly collects data for intelligence or military applications[8]
  • SAR-Lupe – German military reconnaissance satellite system
  • Signals intelligence – Intelligence-gathering by interception of signals
  • TerraSAR-X – German Earth observation satellite
  • Yaogan – Chinese military reconnaissance satellite program
  • Scientific satellites
  • Service satellites
  • Space telescope satellites
Artist rendering of ESA's Gaia satellite observing the Milky Way. The background sky image was compiled from data of more than 1.8 billion stars.
  • Student satellites
  • Aalto-1 – Finnish research nanosatellite
  • AAU CubeSat – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-2 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-3 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • Target satellites
LAGEOS are satellites designed to provide orbital laser ranging benchmarks for geodynamical studies of Earth.
  • Technology demonstration satellites
  • PROBA-2 – European Space Agency satellite
  • PROBA-V – European Space Agency satellite
  • SNAP-1
  • STS-51 – 1993 American crewed spaceflight
  • Technology demonstration – Showcasing an idea for new technology
  • Technology for Autonomous Operational Survivability
  • TRACE – NASA satellite of the Explorer program
  • Weather satellites

By operational status

  • Cancelled satellites
  • Decommissioned satellites
  • CORONA (satellite) – American reconnaissance satellites (1959–1972)
  • Envisat – ESA Earth observation satellite (2002–2012)
  • Intelsat I – American commercial communications satellite launched in 1965
  • Nimbus 1 – Former U.S. meteorological satellite
  • Nimbus 7 – Former U.S. meteorological satellite
  • Syncom 1 – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Syncom 2 – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Syncom 3 – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Telstar 1 – Defunct Communications Satellite
  • Vanguard 1 upper stage – American satellite launched in 1958; oldest manmade object in Earth orbit
Leasat F3 after its deployment from the space shuttle Discovery during mission STS-51-D.
  • Derelict satellites
  • AMC-9
  • AMSAT-OSCAR 7 – 1974 amateur radio satellite
  • Derelict satellite – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Derelict spacecraft – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Galaxy 15 – American telecommunications satellite
  • Humanity Star – Miniaturized passive satellite
  • LES-1 – American communications satellite
  • Minotaur V Flight 1, fifth stage – Former NASA Lunar mission
  • Minotaur V Flight 1, fourth stage – Former NASA Lunar mission
  • Orbital Reflector – 2018 sculpture and passive satellite by Trevor Paglen
  • SDS-1 – Japanese demonstration spacecraft
  • SNAP-10A – Experimental nuclear-powered US Air Force satellite
  • Zombie satellite – Satellite that begins communicating again after an extended period of inactivity
  • Destroyed satellites
  • 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test – Largest field of space debris in history
  • Kosmos 954 – Reconnaissance satellite of Soviet Union
  • Kosmos 1408 – Soviet artificial satellite destroyed by an ASAT missile
  • Operation Burnt Frost – 2008 military operation to destroy a non-functioning U.S. satellite
  • Failed satellites
Illustration of the Phobos 1 spacecraft.
  • AMC-14 – Communications satellite
  • BSAT-2b – Japanese communications satellite
  • Mars Observer – Failed NASA orbiter mission to Mars (1992–1993)
  • NOAA-19 – American weather satellite (2009–2025)
  • NOAA-B – American weather satellite
  • Phobos 1 – Soviet mars probe
  • Phobos 2 – Soviet Mars moon probe (1988–1989)
  • Syncom 1 – 1960s and 80s NASA program to develop communications satellites
  • Zuma (satellite) – Classified United States government satellite
  • Proposed satellites
  • Reentered satellites

By origin

  • Artificial satellites
The first television image of Earth from space from the TIROS-1 weather satellite in 1960.
  • Captured satellites
  • 2020 SO – Space junk
  • 6Q0B44E – Object in high Earth orbit
  • Apollo 12 – Second crewed Moon landing
  • J002E3 – Designation of part of the Saturn V rocket
  • Lunar Prospector – Third mission of the Discovery program; polar orbital reconnaissance of the Moon
  • S-IVB – Third stage on the Saturn V and second stage on the Saturn IB
  • Space debris – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
  • Surveyor 2 – Failed lunar lander launched in 1966
  • Temporary satellite – Object captured by a planet for a while
  • WT1190F – Small temporary satellite of Earth that impacted in 2015
  • Co-orbital satellites
  • Temporary satellites

By size and design

Mars Cube One was a Mars flyby mission launched 2018 alongside NASA's InSight Mars lander.[301]

Satellites can be classified by physical scale, spacecraft architecture, and how mission hardware is carried or coordinated.[297][2] This includes mass classes from small satellites and CubeSats to larger spacecraft platforms, as well as modular buses, hosted payloads, and formation-flying designs.[297][2][302][303]

  • CubeSats
  • Aalto-1 – Finnish research nanosatellite
  • AAU CubeSat – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-2 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-3 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • Formation-flying satellites
  • Hosted payloads
  • Large satellites
Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) is a constellation of communications satellites operated by the United States Space Force.
  • Microsatellites
The German Aerospace Center's TET-1 microsatellite undergoing tests.
  • Aspera (spacecraft) – NASA mission to study galaxy evolution
  • Blackjack (satellite) – Constellation of American surveillance satellites
  • EOS 02 – Indian Earth observation satellite
  • EOS-08 – 2024 Indian earth-observation satellite
  • Minisatellites
  • PROBA-2 – European Space Agency satellite
  • PROBA-V – European Space Agency satellite
  • Modular satellites
  • Nanosatellites
Artistic illustration of ESTCube-1, Estonia's first satellite.
  • Aalto-1 – Finnish research nanosatellite
  • AAU CubeSat – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-2 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • AAUSat-3 – CubeSat built and operated by Aalborg University, Denmark
  • Picosatellites
  • Breakthrough Starshot – Interstellar probe project
  • Femtosatellite – Satellites of low mass and size, usually under 1200 kg
  • Interorbital Systems – American aerospace company
  • KickSat – Citizen science project
  • PicoSAT – Microsatellite testing electronic components/systems in space conditions
  • PocketQube – Type of miniaturized satellite
  • Picosatellite – Satellites of low mass and size, usually under 1200 kg
  • SPRITE (spacecraft) – Proposed NASA Saturn atmospheric probe mission concept
  • PocketQubes
  • Small satellites
File:Brazilian artist Edson Pavoni holds the PocketQube satellite Orbital Temple (2022).jpg
Brazilian artist Edson Pavoni holds the PocketQube satellite Orbital Temple, the first artistic satellite from the Global South.

Notes

  1. ↑ [30][31][32][33][34]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 "Life size model of the first Russian Sputnik". 4 December 1959. https://www.un.org/ungifts/life-size-model-first-russian-sputnik. "Sputnik was launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, orbited for three weeks before its batteries died, and completed 1,400 revolutions of the earth before disintegrating in the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses." 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 "2.0 Complete Spacecraft Platforms". NASA Launch Services Program. 2026. https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/platforms/. 
  3. ↑ "What Is a Satellite?". NASA. 26 September 2023. https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/satellite/en/. 
  4. ↑ "Global Space Launch Activity in 2024" (PDF). 15 February 2025. https://brycetech.com/reports/report-documents/global-space-launch-activity-2024/Bryce_Global_Space_Launch_Activity_2024.pdf. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 "Communications Satellites". https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/communications-satellites. 
  6. ↑ Dilhac, Jean-Marie (2004). "From tele-communicare to Telecommunications". http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/aboutus/history_center/conferences/che2004/Dilhac.pdf. "Edouard Estaunié defined télécommunication(s) as 'remote transmission of thought through electricity'." 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 Powers, Korine; Zito, Jacqueline E. Zito (17 June 2025). "The Near Space Network – Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS)". NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/what-is-the-near-space-network/#hds-sidebar-nav-3. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 "Military Satellite Systems: A History — Part One". May 2008. https://milsatmagazine.com/story.php?number=1811044549. 
  9. ↑ "geopositioning". 2 June 2020. https://isotc211.geolexica.org/concepts/2467/. 
  10. ↑ Laurie Tetley; David Calcutt (7 June 2007). Electronic Navigation Systems. Routledge. pp. 9–. ISBN 978-1-136-40725-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=W2kABAAAQBAJ&q=%22position+fixing%22&pg=PR9. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "A Beginner's Guide to GNSS in Europe". IFATCA. http://www.ifatca.org/system/files/public_docs/gnss.pdf. 
  12. ↑ "Applications" (in en). 18 August 2011. https://www.gsa.europa.eu/galileo/applications. 
  13. ↑ Njoku, Eni, ed (2014). Encyclopedia of remote sensing. The encyclopedia of earth sciences series. New York: Springer Reference. ISBN 978-0-387-36698-2. OCLC 880118890. 
  14. ↑ Schowengerdt, Robert A. (2007). Remote sensing: models and methods for image processing (3rd ed.). Academic Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-12-369407-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=KQXNaDH0X-IC&pg=PA2. Retrieved 15 November 2015. 
  15. ↑ "Cold War in Space: Top Secret Reconnaissance Satellites Revealed". https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/195923/cold-war-in-space-top-secret-reconnaissance-satellites-revealed/. 
  16. ↑ The First Photo From Space , Tony Reichhardt, Air & Space Magazine, 1 November 2006
  17. ↑ "When was the Landsat 9 satellite launched?" (in en). United States Geological Survey. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/when-was-landsat-9-satellite-launched?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products. 
  18. ↑ "Space Physics Textbook". 26 November 2006. http://www.oulu.fi/~spaceweb/textbook/. 
  19. ↑ "Cubist Movement". Space News: p. 30. 13 August 2012. "When professors Jordi Puig-Suari of California Polytechnic State University and Bob Twiggs of Stanford University invented the CubeSat, they never imagined that the tiny satellites would be adopted by universities, companies and government agencies around the world. They simply wanted to design a spacecraft with capabilities similar to Sputnik that graduate student could design, build, test and operate. For size, the professors settled on a ten-centimeter cube because it was large enough to accommodate a basic communications payload, solar panels and a battery." 
  20. ↑ Byrne, Richard (21 October 2010). "Google Demo Slam – Short Tech Demos" (in en-US). https://freetech4teach.teachermade.com/2010/10/google-demo-slam-short-tech-demos/. 
  21. ↑ DOD-STD-1399-441; United States Department of Defense.
  22. ↑ [1]ICD-GPS-060B: GPS User Equipment (Phase III) Interface Control Document for the Pecise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Interface, Global Positioning System Joint Program Office, 2002
  23. ↑ Global Positioning System Carrier-Phase
  24. ↑ Time and Frequency Transfer using the phase of the GPS Carrier
  25. ↑ "The History of Gamma-ray Astronomy". NASA. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/history_gamma.html. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Military Satellite Communications Fundamentals". 1 April 2010. http://www.aerospace.org/2013/12/12/military-satellite-communications-fundamentals/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Kuznetsov, V.D.; Sinelnikov, V.M.; Alpert, S.N. (June 2015). "Yakov Alpert: Sputnik-1 and the first satellite ionospheric experiment". Advances in Space Research 55 (12): 2833–2839. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2015.02.033. Bibcode: 2015AdSpR..55.2833K. 
  28. ↑ Corradino, Claudia; Ganci, Gaetana; Bilotta, Giuseppe; Cappello, Annalisa; Del Negro, Ciro; Fortuna, Luigi (January 2019). "Smart Decision Support Systems for Volcanic Applications" (in en). Energies 12 (7): 1216. doi:10.3390/en12071216. 
  29. ↑ Corradino, Claudia; Ganci, Gaetana; Cappello, Annalisa; Bilotta, Giuseppe; Hérault, Alexis; Del Negro, Ciro (January 2019). "Mapping Recent Lava Flows at Mount Etna Using Multispectral Sentinel-2 Images and Machine Learning Techniques" (in en). Remote Sensing 11 (16): 1916. doi:10.3390/rs11161916. Bibcode: 2019RemS...11.1916C. 
  30. ↑ "China's GPS rival Beidou is now fully operational after final satellite launched". cnn.com. 24 June 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/24/tech/china-beidou-satellite-gps-intl-hnk/index.html. 
  31. ↑ "Galileo is the European global satellite-based navigation system". 26 January 2024. https://www.euspa.europa.eu/european-space/galileo/What-Galileo. 
  32. ↑ Kishimoto, Motohisa (13 December 2024). "The status of QZSS" (in en-US). https://www.gpsworld.com/the-status-of-qzss/. 
  33. ↑ "IRNSS Programme". https://www.isro.gov.in/IRNSS_Programme.html. 
  34. ↑ "IRNSS". https://www.ursc.gov.in/navigation/irnss.jsp. 
  35. ↑ "VANGUARD – A HISTORY, CHAPTER 12, SUCCESS – AND AFTER". NASA. https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4202/chap12.html. 
  36. ↑ "Military Satellite Systems: A History — Part One". MilsatMagazine. May 2008. http://www.milsatmagazine.com/story.php?number=1811044549. Retrieved 21 January 2014. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Radio Regulations, Edition of 2024: Volume 1: Articles. International Telecommunication Union. 2024. https://search.itu.int/history/HistoryDigitalCollectionDocLibrary/1.49.48.en.101.pdf. Retrieved 30 June 2026. 
  38. ↑ "CubeSat Launch Initiative". NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/kennedy/launch-services-program/cubesat-launch-initiative/. 
  39. ↑ Darling, David. "Orbiting Astronomical Observatory". https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/O/OAO.html. 
  40. ↑ "Detector, Uvicon, Celescope" (in en). National Air and Space Museum. 24 November 2016. https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/detector-uvicon-celescope-1. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Overbye, Dennis (5 September 2023). "Back to New Jersey, Where the Universe Began – A half-century ago, a radio telescope in Holmdel, N.J., sent two astronomers 13.8 billion years back in time — and opened a cosmic window that scientists have been peering through ever since.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/04/science/astronomy-holmdel-antenna-microwaves.html. 
  42. ↑ "Explorer 11 (S-15)". NASA. 28 October 2021. https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1961-013A.  Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  43. ↑ "Infrared Astronomical Satellite". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/infrared-astronomical-satellite-iras/. 
  44. ↑ Beichman, C. A.; Neugebauer, G.; Habing, H. J.; Clegg, P. E.; Chester, T. J. (1 January 1988). Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) Catalogs and Atlases. Volume 1: Explanatory Supplement (Report). NASA. NASA-RP-1190-VOL-1. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19890004823. Retrieved 30 June 2026. 
  45. ↑ Significant Achievements in Solar Physics 1958–1964. Washington D.C.: NASA. 1966. OCLC 860060668. 
  46. ↑ Giuranna, M.; Roush, T. L.; Duxbury, T.; Hogan, R. C.; Geminale, A.; Formisano (2010). "Compositional Interpretation of PFS/MEx and TES/MGS Thermal Infrared Spectra of Phobos". http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2010/EPSC2010-211.pdf. Retrieved 1 October 2010. 
  47. ↑ "Observations of Solar Irradiance Variability". Science 211 (4483): 700–2. February 1981. doi:10.1126/science.211.4483.700. PMID 17776650. Bibcode: 1981Sci...211..700W. 
  48. ↑ Li, W.; Hudson, M.K. (2019). "Earth's Van Allen Radiation Belts: From Discovery to the Van Allen Probes Era". J. Geophys. Res. 124 (11): 8319–8351. doi:10.1029/2018JA025940. 
  49. ↑ "COBE Mission Design, Spacecraft and Orbit". NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. 18 April 2008. https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/cobe/spacecraft_description.html.  Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  50. ↑ "The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (Nobel Lecture) by Robert Wilson 8 Dec 1978, p. 474". https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/wilson-lecture-1.pdf. 
  51. ↑ Persic, Massimo; Salucci, Paolo (1 September 1992). "The baryon content of the Universe" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 258 (1): 14P–18P. doi:10.1093/mnras/258.1.14P. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 1992MNRAS.258P..14P. http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/258/1/14P. 
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