Chemistry:Potassium alum

From HandWiki
Potassium alum
Names
IUPAC name
Potassium alum[2]
Other names
  • Potassium alum sulfate
  • Potash alum
  • Alum-(K)[1]
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChemSpider
DrugBank
EC Number
  • 233-141-3
  • (dodecahydrate): 616-521-7
KEGG
UNII
Properties
KAl(SO4)2·12H2O
Molar mass 258.192 g/mol (anhydrous)
474.37 g/mol (dodecahydrate)
Appearance White crystals
Odor Watery metallic
Density 1.725 g/cm3
Melting point 92 to 95 °C (198 to 203 °F; 365 to 368 K)
Boiling point Decomposes at 200[3] °C (392 °F; 473 K)
6.01 g/100 g (20°C) [4]
109 g/100 g (90 °C)
Solubility in other solvents Insoluble in acetone
1.4564
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondFlammability code 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterHealth code 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chlorideReactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
0
0
0
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Infobox references
Tracking categories (test):

Potassium alum, potash alum, or potassium aluminium sulfate is a chemical compound defined as the double sulfate of potassium and aluminium, with chemical formula KAl(SO4)2. It is commonly encountered as the dodecahydrate, KAl(SO4)2·12H2O. It crystallizes in an octahedral structure in neutral solution and cubic structure in an alkali solution with space group Pa3 and lattice parameter of 12.18 Å.[5] The compound is the most important member of the generic class of compounds called alums, and is often called simply alum.[6]

Potassium alum is commonly used in water purification, leather tanning, dyeing,[7] fireproof textiles, and baking powder as E number E522. It also has cosmetic uses as a deodorant, as an aftershave treatment and as a styptic for minor bleeding from shaving.[8][9]

History

Antiquity

Egypt

Mesopotamia

According to the expert on Middle Eastern history of chemistry Martin Levey, potassium alum is one of the few compounds known to the ancients that can be found relatively pure in nature, as well as one of only a few chemicals used in Mesopotamian chemical technology that can be identified with certainty.[10] Both native and imported potassium alum was used.[10] Together with other agents, potassium alum was used in glass-making, tanning, and in the dyeing of cloth, wood, and possibly hair.[10] A tanning process using potassium alum is described in tablets from the first millennium BCE.[10] When Levey wrote his article in 1958, no description of the dyeing process had been found, so it is not known how potassium alum was used in it. In Mesopotamian medicine potassium alum was used extensively, for example against itch, jaundice, some eye condition, and unidentified ailments.[10]

According to Levey, potassium alum was used in "classical times" as a flux when soldering copper, in the fireproofing of wood, and in the separation of silver and gold, but that there is no evidence that these uses existed in Mesopotamia.[10]

Greece

The production of potassium alum from alunite is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos.[11] This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century CE.

Rome

Potassium alum was described under the name alumen or salsugoterrae by Pliny,[12] and it is clearly the same as the stypteria (στυπτηρία) described by Dioscorides.[13] However, the name alum and other names applied to this substance — like misy, sory, chalcanthum, and atramentum sutorium — were often applied to other products with vaguely similar properties or uses, such as iron sulfate or "green vitriol".[14]

India and China

Potassium alum is mentioned in Ayurvedic texts namely Charak Samhita, Sushurta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hridaya with the name such as sphaṭika kṣāra, phitkari or saurashtri. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine with the name mingfan .

Middle Ages

In the 13th and 14th centuries, alum (from alunite) was a major import from Phocaea (Gulf of Smyrna in Byzantium) by Genoans and Venetians (and was a cause of war between Genoa and Venice) and later by Florence. After the fall of Constantinople, alunite (the source of alum) was discovered at Tolfa in the Papal States (1461). The textile dyeing industry in Bruges, and many locations in Italy, and later in England, required alum to stabilize the dyes onto the fabric (make the dyes "fast") and also to brighten the colors.[15][16]

Modern era

England

Potassium alum was imported into England mainly from the Middle East, and, from the late 15th century onwards, the Papal States for hundreds of years. Its use there was as a dye-fixer (mordant) for wool (which was one of England's primary industries, the value of which increased significantly if dyed). These sources were unreliable, however, and there was a push to develop a source in England especially as imports from the Papal States ceased following the excommunication of Henry VIII.[17]

With state financing, attempts were made throughout the 16th century, but without success until the early 17th century. An industry was founded in Yorkshire to process the shale, which contained the key ingredient, aluminium sulfate, and made an important contribution to the Industrial Revolution. One of the oldest historic sites for the production of alum from shale and human urine are the Peak alum works in Ravenscar, North Yorkshire. By the 18th century, the landscape of northeast Yorkshire had been devastated by this process, which involved constructing 100-foot (30 m) stacks of burning shale and fuelling them with firewood continuously for months. The rest of the production process consisted of quarrying, extraction, steeping of shale ash with seaweed in urine, boiling, evaporating, crystallisation, milling and loading into sacks for export. Quarrying ate into the cliffs of the area, the forests were felled for charcoal and the land polluted by sulfuric acid and ash.[18]

Identification of the formula

In the early 1700s, Georg Ernst Stahl claimed that reacting sulfuric acid with limestone produced a sort of alum.[19][20] The error was soon corrected by Johann Pott and Andreas Marggraf, who showed that the precipitate obtained when an alkali is poured into a solution of alum, namely alumina, is quite different from lime and chalk, and is one of the ingredients in common clay.[21][22]

Marggraf also showed that perfect crystals with properties of alum can be obtained by dissolving alumina in sulfuric acid and adding potash or ammonia to the concentrated solution.[23][24] In 1767, Torbern Bergman observed the need for potassium or ammonium sulfates to convert aluminium sulfate into alum, while sodium or calcium would not work.[23][25]

At the time, potassium ("potash") was believed to be exclusively found on plants. However, in 1797, Martin Klaproth discovered the presence of potassium in the minerals leucite and lepidolite.[26][27]

Louis Vauquelin then conjectured that potassium was likewise an ingredient in many other minerals. Given Marggraf and Bergman's experiments, he suspected that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient of natural alum. In 1797 he published a dissertation demonstrating that alum is a double salt, composed of sulfuric acid, alumina, and potash.[28] In the same journal volume, Jean-Antoine Chaptal published the analysis of four different kinds of alum, namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, British alum and alum manufactured by himself,[29] confirming Vauquelin's results.[23]

Characteristics

Octahedral potassium alum crystal with unequal distribution of the face area

Potassium alum crystallizes in regular octahedra with flattened corners and is very soluble in water. The solution is slightly acidic and is astringent to the taste. Neutralizing a solution of alum with potassium hydroxide will begin to cause the separation of Al(OH)3, which redissolves with excess hydroxide.[30]

When heated to nearly a red heat, it gives a porous, friable mass, which is known as "burnt alum". It fuses at 92 °C (198 °F) in its own water of crystallization.

Natural occurrence

In the past, potassium alum has been obtained from alunite (KAl(SO4)2·2Al(OH)3), mined from sulfur-containing volcanic sediments.[31] Alunite is an associate and likely potassium and aluminium source.[1][32] It has been reported at Vesuvius, Italy; east of Springsure, Queensland; in Alum Cave, Tennessee; Alum Gulch, Santa Cruz County, Arizona and the Philippine island of Cebu.


The undecahydrate also occurs as the fibrous mineral kalinite (KAl(SO4)2·12H2O).[33]

Industrial production

Potassium alum historically was mainly extracted from alunite.

Potassium alum is now produced industrially by adding potassium sulfate to a concentrated solution of aluminium sulfate.[34] The aluminium sulfate is usually obtained by treating minerals like alum schist, bauxite and cryolite with sulfuric acid.[35] If much iron should be present in the sulfate then it is preferable to use potassium chloride in place of potassium sulfate.[35]

Uses

Medicine and cosmetics

An ammonium alum block sold as an astringent in pharmacies in India (where it is widely known as "Fitkiri" (Bengali), "Fitkari" (Hindi) [36]
Crystal deodorant utilizing potash alum (potassium alum) in sustainable cork packaging

Potassium alum is used in medicine mainly as an astringent (or styptic) and antiseptic.

Styptic pencils are rods composed of potassium alum or aluminum sulfate, used topically to reduce bleeding in minor cuts (especially from shaving) and abrasions, nosebleeds, and hemorrhoids, and to relieve pain from stings and bites. Potassium alum blocks are rubbed over the wet skin after shaving.[9]

Potassium alum is also used topically to remove pimples and acne, and to cauterize aphthous ulcers in the mouth and canker sores, as it has a significant drying effect to the area and reduces the irritation felt at the site.[37][38] It has been used to stop bleeding in cases of hemorrhagic cystitis[39] and is used in some countries as a cure for hyperhidrosis.

Potassium and ammonium alum are the active ingredients in some antiperspirants and deodorants, acting by inhibiting the growth of the bacteria responsible for body odor. Alum's antiperspirant and antibacterial properties[40][41] contribute to its traditional use as an underarm deodorant.[12] It has been used for this purpose in Europe, Mexico, Thailand (where it is called sarn-som), throughout Asia and in the Philippines (where it is called tawas). Today, potassium or ammonium alum is sold commercially for this purpose as a "deodorant crystal".[42][43][8] Beginning in 2005 the US Food and Drug Administration no longer recognized it as a wetness reducer, but it is still available and used in several other countries, primarily in Asia. Potassium alum was the major immunologic adjuvant used to increase the efficacy of vaccines, and has been used since the 1920s.[44] But it has been almost completely replaced by aluminium hydroxide and aluminium phosphate in commercial vaccines.[45]

Alum may be used in depilatory waxes used for the removal of body hair or applied to freshly waxed skin as a soothing agent.

Culinary

Potassium alum may be an acidic ingredient of baking powder to provide a second leavening phase at high temperatures (although sodium alum is more commonly used for that purpose). For example, potassium alum is frequently used in leavening of youtiao, a traditional Chinese fried bread, throughout China.[46]

Alum was used by bakers in England during the 1800s to make bread whiter. This was theorized by some, including John Snow, to cause rickets.[47][48] The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 63) prevented this and other adulterations.[49]

Potassium alum, under the name "alum powder", is found in the spice section of many grocery stores in the US. Its chief culinary use is in pickling recipes, to preserve and add crispness to fruit and vegetables.[50]

Flame retardant

Potassium alum is used as a fire retardant to render cloth, wood, and paper materials less flammable.[34]

Tanning

Potassium alum is used in leather tanning,[51] in order to remove moisture from the hide and prevent rotting. Unlike tannic acid, alum doesn't bind to the hide and can be washed out of it.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}

Dyeing

Alum has been used since antiquity as mordant to form a permanent bond between dye and natural textile fibers like wool.[52] It is also used for this purpose in paper marbling.[53]

Chemical flocculant

Potassium alum has been used since remote antiquity for purification of turbid liquids.[54] It is still widely used in the purification of water for drinking and industrial processes water, treatment of effluents and post-storm treatment of lakes to precipitate contaminants.[55]

Between 30 and 40 ppm of alum[54][56] for household wastewater, often more for industrial wastewater,[57] is added to the water so that the negatively charged colloidal particles clump together into "flocs", which then float to the top of the liquid, settle to the bottom of the liquid, or can be more easily filtered from the liquid, prior to further filtration and disinfection of the water.[34] Like other similar salts, it works by neutralizing the electrical double layer surrounding very fine suspended particles, allowing them to join into flocs.


Lake pigments

Aluminum hydroxide from potassium alum serves as a base for the majority of lake pigments.[58]

Dissolving iron and steel

Alum solution has the property of dissolving steels while not affecting aluminium or base metals. Alum solution can be used to dissolve steel tool bits that have become lodged in machined castings.[59][60]

Other

Potassium alum was formerly used as a hardener for photographic emulsions (films and papers), usually as part of the fixer. It has now been replaced in that use by other chemicals.

Toxicology and safety

Potassium alum may be a weak irritant to the skin when used as a deodorant.[61]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Alum-(K) Mineral Data". Mineralogy Database. http://webmineral.com/data/Alum-%28K%29.shtml. 
  2. ↑ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (2005). Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (IUPAC Recommendations 2005). Cambridge (UK): RSC–IUPAC. ISBN 0-85404-438-8. Electronic version.
  3. ↑ "Material Safety Data Sheet - Aluminum potassium sulfate dodecahydrate". https://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/19200.htm. 
  4. ↑ "Solubility Table for Water at Temperature". https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/SG/en/support/calculators-and-apps/solubility-table-compounds-water-temperature. 
  5. ↑ "Crystal structure of the alums". 1934. http://crystallography.net/cod/1011177.html. 
  6. ↑ Bottomley, L.; Bottomley, L. A. (2010). Chemistry 1310: Laboratory Manual. Plymouth, Michigan: School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology / Hayden-McNeil Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7380-3819-3. 
  7. ↑ "alum | chemical compound". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17885/alum. Retrieved 18 January 2016. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Helmenstine, Anne Marie. "What is Alum?". About.com. http://chemistry.about.com/od/moleculescompounds/f/What-Is-Alum.htm. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Alum Block for Shaving – When and How to Use One". BlakenBlade.com. Blake'n Blade Shave Shop. 11 January 2020. https://blakenblade.com/alum-block-for-shaving-how-to-guide. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Levey, Martin (1958). "Alum in Ancient Mesopotamian Technology". Isis 49 (2): 166–169. doi:10.1086/348667. https://www.jstor.org/stable/226929. 
  11. ↑ A. Archontidou 2005, "Un atelier de preparation de l'alun a partir de l'alunite dans l'isle de Lesbos" in L'alun de Mediterranée. ed P. Borgard et al.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Alumen, and the Several Varieties of it; Thirty-eight Remedies. , Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, book 35, chapter 52; on the Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University. Last accessed 27 December 2011.
  13. ↑ Dioscorides, book 5, chapter 123.
  14. ↑ Chisholm 1911, pp. 766–767.
  15. ↑ "Color in Relation to the Political and Economic History of the Western World" by Sidney M Edelstein, Proceedings of the Perkin Centennial, American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, September 1956
  16. ↑ "Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance", Lisa Jardine, 1996, Norton&Co, pages 114–116 ISBN 978-0393318661
  17. ↑ "How alum shaped the Yorkshire coast". National Trust, UK. https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/yorkshire-coast/features/how-alum-shaped-the-yorkshire-coast. 
  18. ↑ Chance, Stephen (20 November 2013). "Was alum the first example of the north-east's 'dirty' industries? | UK news". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/the-northerner/2013/nov/20/alum-makers-secret-north-east-manufacturing. 
  19. ↑ George Ernst Stahl (1703), Specimen Beccherianum . Johann Ludwig Gleditsch, Leipzig.
  20. ↑ George Ernst Stahl (1723), Ausführliche Betrachtung und zulänglicher Beweiss von den Saltzen, daß diesselbe aus einer zarten Erde, mit Wasser innig verbunden, bestehen (Detailed treatment and adequate proof of salts, that they consist of a subtile earth intimately bound with water) Wäysenhaus, Halle.
  21. ↑ Johann Heinrich Pott (1746), Chymische Untersuchungen, welche fürnehmlich von der Lithogeognosia oder Erkäntniß und Bearbeitung der gemeinen einfacheren Steine und Erden ingleichen von Feuer und Licht handeln , volume 1, p. 32.
  22. ↑ Andreas Sigismund Marggraf (1754), "Expériences faites sur la terre d'alun" (Experiments made on the earth of alum), Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin, pp. 41–66.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Chisholm 1911, p. 766.
  24. ↑ Marggraf (1754) "Expériences qui concernent la régénération de l'alun de sa propre terre, l'après avoir séparé par l'acide vitriolique; avec quelques compositions artificielles de l'alun par moyen d'autres terres, et dudit acide" . Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin, pp. 31–40.
  25. ↑ Torbern Bergman (1767), "IX. De confectione Aluminis" . In Opuscula physica et chemica, I. G. Müller, Leipzig, 1788), volume 1, pp. 306–307.
  26. ↑ Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1797), Beiträge zur Chemischen Kenntniss Der Mineralkörper (Contributions to [our] chemical knowledge of mineral substances). Decker and Co., Posen, and Heinrich August Rottmann, Berlin; pp. 45–46 and https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433066422746;view=1up;seq=213 p. 193.
  27. ↑ Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1801), Analytical Essays Towards Promoting the Chemical Knowledge of Mineral Substances. T. Cadell, Jr. & W. Davies, London. His finding of potassium in leucite appears on pp. 353–354.: "On the contrary, I was surprised in an unexpected manner, by discovering in it another constituent part, consisting of a substance, the existence of which, certainly, no one person would have conjectured within the limits of the mineral kingdom .... This constituent part of leucite ... is no other than pot-ash, which, hitherto, has been thought exclusively to belong to the vegetable kingdom, and has, on this account, been called vegetable alkali. ... This discovery, which I think of great importance, cannot fail to occasion considerable changes in the systems of natural history ...". The discovery of potassium in lepidolite is mentioned on p. 472.
  28. ↑ Vauquelin (1797), "Sur la nature de l'Alun du commerce, sur l'existence de la potasse dans ce sel, et sur diverses combinaisons simples ou triples de l'alumine avec l'acide sulfurique" (On the nature of commercial alum, on the existence of potash in this salt, and on various simple or triple compounds of alumina with sulfuric acid). In Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1st series, volume 22, pages 258–279.
  29. ↑ Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1797), "Comparée des quatre principales sortes d'Alun connues dans le commerce; et Observations sur leur nature et leur usage" (Comparison of the four main types of commercial alum; and observations on their nature and use). In Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1st series, volume 22, pages 280–296.
  30. ↑ J. Strähle, E. Schweda (2006), Jander-Blasius, Handbuch der analytischen und präparativen anorganischen Chemie, S. Hirzel Verlag, 16th edition, p. 420
  31. ↑ Bottomley (2010) p. 35.
  32. ↑ "Alum-(K) mineral data and information". MinDat. http://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=3267. 
  33. ↑ "Kalinite Mineral Data". MinDat. http://webmineral.com/data/Kalinite.shtml. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Otto Helmboldt, L. Keith Hudson, Chanakya Misra, Karl Wefers, Wolfgang Heck, Hans Stark, Max Danner, Norbert Rösch "Aluminium Compounds, Inorganic" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_527.pub2
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Chisholm 1911, p. 767.
  36. ↑ Handa, Parvesh (1982). Herbal beauty care. New Delhi: Orient Paperbacks. p. 12. ISBN 9788122200249. https://books.google.com/books?id=QlXQBtaMU7AC&pg=PA12. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  37. ↑ "Canker Sores – Treatment & Prevention". https://lagunaparkdentistry.com/blog/canker-sores-treatment-and-prevention. 
  38. ↑ Ong, Willie T.. "Singaw: Ano ang lunas?". Philippine Star. https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/opinyon/2018/10/18/1860929/singaw-ano-ang-lunas. 
  39. ↑ Kennedy, C.; Snell, M. E.; Witherow, R. E. (1984). "Use of Alum to Control Intractable Vesical Haemorrhage". British Journal of Urology 56 (6): 673–675. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.1984.tb06143.x. PMID 6534488. 
  40. ↑ Kanlayavattanakul, M.; Lourith, N. (1 August 2011). "Body malodours and their topical treatment agents". International Journal of Cosmetic Science 33 (4): 298–311. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2494.2011.00649.x. PMID 21401651. 
  41. ↑ Aguilar, T. N.; Blaug, S. M.; Zopf, L. C. (July 1956). "A study of the antibacterial activity of some complex aluminum salts". Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 45 (7): 498–500. doi:10.1002/jps.3030450720. PMID 13345689. 
  42. ↑ Francis Verdan, "Cosmetic assembly defined by encased stick of alum", US patent 5399364, issued 1995-05-21 [1]
  43. ↑ Baki, Gabriella; Alexander, Kenneth S. (27 April 2015). Introduction to Cosmetic Formulation and Technology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 324. ISBN 9781118763780. https://books.google.com/books?id=tM_0BgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 5 February 2018. 
  44. ↑ Mbow, M. Lamine; De Gregorio, Ennio; Ulmer, Jeffrey B. (2011). "Alum's adjuvant action: Grease is the word". Nature Medicine 17 (4): 415–416. doi:10.1038/nm0411-415. PMID 21475229. 
  45. ↑ Marrack, Philippa; McKee, Amy S.; Munks, Michael W. (2009). "Towards an understanding of the adjuvant action of aluminium". Nature Reviews Immunology 9 (4): 287–293. doi:10.1038/nri2510. ISSN 1474-1733. PMID 19247370. 
  46. ↑ Li, G.; Zhao, X.; Wu, S.; Hua, H.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, Z. (June 2017). "Dietary exposure to aluminium in the popular Chinese fried bread youtiao". Food Additives & Contaminants – Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure & Risk Assessment 34 (6): 972–979. doi:10.1080/19440049.2017.1306757. PMID 28332421. 
  47. ↑ "On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets". http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/injepidemiology32_336_337_2003.pdf. 
  48. ↑ "Brown Bread". The Church of England Magazine (Church Pastoral-aid Society, London) 22: 355. January–June 1847. https://books.google.com/books?id=xRURAAAAIAAJ. 
  49. ↑ Hassall, Arthur Hill (1857). Adulterations detected; or, Plain instructions for the discovery of frauds in food and medicine. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts. p. 43. https://archive.org/details/adulterationsde00hassgoog. 
  50. ↑ Harampolis, Alethea; Rizzo, Jill (2013). The Flower Recipe Book. Artisan Books. ISBN 9781579655303. https://books.google.com/books?id=1QZrL3YPHeUC&q=Alum+powder,+found+in+the+spice+section+of+many+grocery+stores,+may+be+used+in+pickling+recipes&pg=PA15. 
  51. ↑ Young, Laura S. (1995). Bookbinding & Conservation by Hand: A Working Guide. Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 9781884718113. https://books.google.com/books?id=G7tUPQdT2hcC&q=Alum+is+used+in+the+tanning+of+animal+hides&pg=PA24. Retrieved 2 November 2020. 
  52. ↑ Berger, G. (1840). The Mechanic and Chemist. p. 91. https://archive.org/details/mechanicandchem00berggoog. 
  53. ↑ Berry, Galen (2017). The Art of Marbling on Paper and Fabric. p. 6. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Faust, Samuel D.; Aly, Osman M. (1999). Chemistry of water treatment (2nd ed.). Chelsea, Michigan: Ann Arbor Press. ISBN 9781575040110. https://books.google.com/books?id=ivLiNH-NjOcC&q=alum+flocculation&pg=PA217. Retrieved 2 November 2020. 
  55. ↑ "Storm water treatment will strip phosphorus from Arboretum pond, College of Engineering @ the University of Wisconsin-Madison, initiatives in energy, health, nanotechnology, security, and information technology". Engr.wisc.edu. http://www.engr.wisc.edu/news/archive/2013/aug20.html. 
  56. ↑ Bratby, John (2006). Coagulation and flocculation in water and wastewater treatment (2nd ed.). London: IWA Publ.. ISBN 9781843391067. https://books.google.com/books?id=vmkNROg_ehMC&q=alum+flocculation. 
  57. ↑ Rice, J. K. (June 1957). "The use of organic flocculants and flocculating aids in the treatment of industrial water and industrial waste water". Symposium on Industrial Water and Industrial Waste Water (207): 41–51. doi:10.1520/STP39285S. ISBN 978-0-8031-5629-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=yNwM-GWgraUC&q=alum+flocculation&pg=PA49. Retrieved 2 November 2020. 
  58. ↑ Dackerman, Susan (2002). Painted Prints: The Revelation of Color in Northern Renaissance & Baroque Engravings, Etchings, & Woodcuts. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0271022352. https://books.google.com/books?id=00Duxp3RIjkC&q=%22Alum%22+serves+as+a+base+for+the+majority+of+lake+pigments.&pg=PA55. Retrieved 2 November 2020. 
  59. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fqZYgReuywM AvE demonstrates use of alum to remove a broken stud from an aluminium engine head
  60. ↑ "What did you do today? (2014)". Model Engineer. http://www.model-engineer.co.uk/forums/postings.asp?th=91442&p=82#PostTop. 
  61. ↑ Gallego, H.; Lewis, E. J.; Crutchfield, C. E. III (July 1999). "Crystal deodorant dermatitis: Irritant dermatitis to alum-containing deodorant". Cutis 64 (1): 65–6. PMID 10431678. 

Works cited



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