Chemistry:Spermidine

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Spermidine is a polyamine compound (C7H19N3) originally isolated from semen[1] and also found in ribosomes and living tissues and has various metabolic functions in organisms.

Function

Spermidine synchronizes an array of biological processes, (such as Ca2+, Na+, K+ -ATPase) thus maintaining membrane potential and controlling intracellular pH and volume. Spermidine regulates biological processes, such as Ca2+ influx by glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA receptor), which has been associated with nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cGMP/PKG pathway activation and a decrease of Na+,K+-ATPase activity in cerebral cortex synaptosomes.

Spermidine is a longevity agent in mammals due to various mechanisms of action, which are just beginning to be understood. Autophagy is the main mechanism at the molecular level, but evidence has been found for other mechanisms, including inflammation reduction, lipid metabolism, and regulation of cell growth, proliferation, and death.[2][3] Spermidine has been theorized to promote autophagy via the MAPK pathway by inhibiting phosphorylation of raf,[2] or possibly by inhibiting cytosolic autophagy-related protein acetylation by EP300 and thereby increasing acetylation of tubulin.[3]

Spermidine is known to regulate plant growth, assisting the in vitro process of transcribing RNA, and inhibition of NOS. Also, spermidine is a precursor to other polyamines, such as spermine and thermospermine, some of which contribute to tolerance against drought and salinity in plants.

Spermidine has been tested and discovered to encourage hair shaft elongation and lengthen hair growth. Spermidine has also been found to "upregulate expression of the epithelial stem cell-associated keratins K15 and K19, and dose-dependently modulated K15 promoter activity in situ and the colony forming efficiency, proliferation and K15 expression of isolated human K15-GFP+ cells in vitro."[4]

Biosynthesis

Biosynthesis of spermidine and spermine from putrescine. Ado = 5'-adenosyl.

Spermidine is an aliphatic polyamine. In plants and some bacteria, spermidine synthase (SPDS) catalyzes its formation from putrescine.[5][6] It is a precursor to other polyamines, such as spermine and its structural isomer thermospermine.

Many of the organisms that make up the gut microbiota in humans do not contain the SPDS enzyme, for example the ϵ-proteobacteria.[6] Instead, they use a combination of two enzymes to produce spermidine from putrescine. First, carboxynorspermidine synthase catalyses a reductive amination using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as the reducing agent.[7][8]

  1. REDIRECT Template:Chemical reaction

The intermediate, carboxyspermidine, is then decarboxylated by carboxynorspermidine decarboxylase:[6][8]

  1. REDIRECT Template:Chemical reaction

Biochemical actions

Spermidine's known actions include:

Sources

Good dietary sources of spermidine are aged cheese, mushrooms, soy products, legumes, corn, and whole grains.[18] Spermidine is plentiful in a Mediterranean diet.[3] For comparison: The spermidine content in human seminal plasma varies between approx. 15 and 50 mg/L (mean 31 mg/L).[19]

Food Spermidine
mg/kg		 notes & refs
Wheat germ 243 [20]
Soybean, dried 207 Japanese[18]
Cheddar, 1yr old 199 [18]
Soybean, dried 128 German[18]
Mushroom 89 Japanese[18]
Rice bran 50 [18]
Chicken liver 48 [18]
Green peas 46 [18]
Mango 30 [18]
Chickpea 29 [18]
Cauliflower (cooked) 25 [18]
Broccoli (cooked) 25 [18]

Note: spermidine content varies by source and age. See ref for details.

In grains, the endosperm contains most of the spermidine. One of the best known grain dietary sources is wheat germ, containing as much as 243 mg/kg.[20]

Uses

  • Spermidine can be used in electroporation while transferring the DNA into the cell under the electrical impulse. May be used for purification of DNA-binding proteins.
  • Spermidine is also used, along with calcium chloride, for precipitating DNA onto microprojectiles for bombardment with a gene gun.[21]
  • Spermidine has also been reported to protect the heart from aging and prolong the lifespan of mice, while in humans it was correlated with lower blood pressure.[22] It also was found to reduce the amount of aging in yeast, flies, worms, and human immune cells by inducing autophagy.[23]
  • Spermidine may play a role in male and female fertility. Fertile men have higher spermidine levels than men who are infertile,[24] and spermidine supplementation has been shown to help maintain a healthy hormone balance and reduce oxidative stress.[25]
  • Spermidine is commonly used for in vitro molecular biology reactions, particularly, in vitro transcription by phage RNA polymerases,[26] in vitro transcription by human RNA polymerase II,[27] and in vitro translation.
  • Spermidine increases specificity and reproducibility of Taq-mediated PCR by neutralizing and stabilizing the negative charge on DNA phosphate backbone.

References

  1. ↑ Chen, Fan (2020). "Spermidine as a target for cancer therapy". Pharmacol Res 159. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104943. PMID 32461185. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Minois, Nadège (28 January 2014). "Molecular Basis of the 'Anti-Aging' Effect of Spermidine and Other Natural Polyamines – A Mini-Review". Gerontology 60 (4): 319–326. doi:10.1159/000356748. PMID 24481223. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Spermidine in health and disease". Science 359 (6374). 2018. doi:10.1126/science.aan2788. PMID 29371440. 
  4. ↑ Ramot, Yuval; Tiede, Stephan; Bíró, Tamás; Abu Bakar, Mohd Hilmi; Sugawara, Koji; Philpott, Michael P.; Harrison, Wesley; Pietilä, Marko et al. (27 July 2011). "Spermidine Promotes Human Hair Growth and Is a Novel Modulator of Human Epithelial Stem Cell Functions". PLOS ONE 6 (7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022564. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 21818338. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...622564R. 
  5. ↑ Junker, Anne; Fischer, Juliane; Sichhart, Yvonne; Brandt, Wolfgang; Dräger, Birgit (2013). "Evolution of the key alkaloid enzyme putrescine N-methyltransferase from spermidine synthase". Frontiers in Plant Science 4: 260. doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00260. PMID 23908659. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Alternative spermidine biosynthetic route is critical for growth of Campylobacter jejuni and is the dominant polyamine pathway in human gut microbiota". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 286 (50): 43301–12. December 2011. doi:10.1074/jbc.M111.307835. PMID 22025614. 
  7. ↑ "Purification and some properties of carboxynorspermidine synthase participating in a novel biosynthetic pathway for norspermidine in Vibrio alginolyticus". Journal of General Microbiology 137 (7): 1737–42. July 1991. doi:10.1099/00221287-137-7-1737. PMID 1955861. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "An alternative polyamine biosynthetic pathway is widespread in bacteria and essential for biofilm formation in Vibrio cholerae". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 284 (15): 9899–907. April 2009. doi:10.1074/jbc.M900110200. PMID 19196710. 
  9. ↑ Hu, J; Mahmoud, MI; El-Fakahany, EE (1994). "Polyamines inhibit nitric oxide synthase in rat cerebellum". Neuroscience Letters 175 (1–2): 41–5. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(94)91073-1. PMID 7526294. 
  10. ↑ Wan, CY; Wilkins, TA (1993). "Spermidine facilitates PCR amplification of target DNA". PCR Methods and Applications 3 (3): 208–10. doi:10.1101/gr.3.3.208. PMID 8118404. 
  11. ↑ Cull, M; McHenry, CS (1990). "Preparation of extracts from prokaryotes". Guide to Protein Purification. Methods in Enzymology. 182. pp. 147–53. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(90)82014-S. ISBN 978-0-12-182083-1. 
  12. ↑ Blethen, SL; Boeker, EA; Snell, EE (1968). "Arginine decarboxylase from Escherichia coli. I. Purification and specificity for substrates and coenzyme". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 243 (8): 1671–7. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)93498-8. PMID 4870599. 
  13. ↑ Wu, WH; Morris, DR (1973). "Biosynthetic arginine decarboxylase from Escherichia coli. Subunit interactions and the role of magnesium ion". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 248 (5): 1696–9. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)44246-4. PMID 4571774. 
  14. ↑ Tabor, CW; Tabor, H (1984). "Polyamines". Annual Review of Biochemistry 53: 749–90. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.53.070184.003533. PMID 6206782. 
  15. ↑ Krug, MS; Berger, SL (1987). "First-strand cDNA synthesis primed with oligo(dT)". Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques. Methods in Enzymology. 152. pp. 316–25. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(87)52036-5. ISBN 978-0-12-182053-4. 
  16. ↑ Karkas, JD; Margulies, L; Chargaff, E (1975). "A DNA polymerase from embryos of Drosophila melanogaster. Purification and properties". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 250 (22): 8657–63. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)40721-7. PMID 241752. 
  17. ↑ Bouché, JP (1981). "The effect of spermidine on endonuclease inhibition by agarose contaminants". Analytical Biochemistry 115 (1): 42–5. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(81)90519-4. PMID 6272602. 
  18. ↑ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 18.11 Ali, Mohamed Atiya; Poortvliet, Eric; Strömberg, Roger; Yngve, Agneta (2011). "Polyamines in foods: development of a food database". Food Nutr Res 55: 5572. doi:10.3402/fnr.v55i0.5572. PMID 21249159. 
  19. ↑ "Sperma" (in de), Wissenschaftliche Tabellen Geigy (Basel: CIBA-GEIGY) Teilband Körperflüssigkeiten: 181-189, 1977 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Brochure on Polyamines, rev. 2". Japan: Oryza Oil & Fat Chemocial Co., Ltd.. 2011-12-26. http://www.oryza.co.jp/html/english/pdf/polyamine_vol.2.pdf. 
  21. ↑ T.M. Klein; T. Gradziel; M.E. Fromm; J.C. Sanford (1988). "Factors influencing gene delivery into Zea mays cells by high–velocity microprojectiles". Nature Biotechnology 6 (5): 559–63. doi:10.1038/nbt0588-559. 
  22. ↑ Eisenberg, Tobias; Abdellatif, Mahmoud; Schroeder, Sabrina; Primessnig, Uwe; Stekovic, Slaven; Pendl, Tobias; Harger, Alexandra; Schipke, Julia et al. (2016). "Cardioprotection and lifespan extension by the natural polyamine spermidine". Nature Medicine 22 (12): 1428–1438. doi:10.1038/nm.4222. PMID 27841876. 
  23. ↑ "Induction of autophagy by spermidine promotes longevity". Nat. Cell Biol. 11 (11): 1305–14. November 2009. doi:10.1038/ncb1975. PMID 19801973. https://www.openaccessrepository.it/record/23132. 
  24. ↑ "Polyamines on the Reproductive Landscape". Endocrine Reviews 32 (5): 694–712. 2011. doi:10.1210/er.2011-0012. PMID 21791568. https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/32/5/694/2354766. Retrieved 2022-07-29. 
  25. ↑ Li, Bo; Hu, Xiaopeng; Yang, Yanzhou; Zhu, Mingyan; Zhang, Jiong; Wang, Yanrong; Pei, Xiuying; Zhou, Huchen et al. (2019-09-06). "GAS5/miR-21 Axis as a Potential Target to Rescue ZCL-082-Induced Autophagy of Female Germline Stem Cells In Vitro". Molecular Therapy. Nucleic Acids 17: 436–447. doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2019.06.012. ISSN 2162-2531. PMID 31319247. 
  26. ↑ "Synthetic polyamines stimulate in vitro transcription by T7 RNA polymerase". Nucleic Acids Res 22 (14): 2784–90. July 1994. doi:10.1093/nar/22.14.2784. PMID 8052534. 
  27. ↑ "Purification and some properties of a soluble DNA-dependent RNA polymerase from nuclei of human placenta". Eur. J. Biochem. 9 (3): 311–8. June 1969. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1969.tb00610.x. PMID 5795512. 



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