Biology:Furosemide

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Furosemide, sold under the brand name Lasix among others, is a loop diuretic medication used to treat edema due to heart failure, liver scarring, or kidney disease.[1] Furosemide may also be used for the treatment of high blood pressure.[1] It can be taken intravenously or orally.[1] When given intravenously, furosemide typically takes effect within five minutes; when taken orally, it typically metabolizes within an hour.[1]

Common side effects include orthostatic hypotension (decrease in blood pressure while standing, and associated lightheadedness), tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and photosensitivity (sensitivity to light).[1] Potentially serious side effects include electrolyte abnormalities, low blood pressure, and hearing loss.[1] It is recommended that serum electrolytes (especially potassium), serum CO
2, creatinine, BUN levels, and liver and kidney functioning be monitored in patients taking furosemide. It is also recommended to be alert for the occurrence of any potential blood dyscrasias.[1]

Furosemide works by decreasing the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys.[1] Common side effects of furosemide injection include hypokalemia (low potassium level), hypotension (low blood pressure), and dizziness.[2]

Furosemide was patented in 1959 and approved for medical use in 1964.[3] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[4] In the United States, it is available as a generic medication.[1] In 2023, it was the 29th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 19 million prescriptions.[5][6] In 2020/21 it was the twentieth most prescribed medication in England.[7] It is on the World Anti-Doping Agency's banned drug list due to concerns that it may mask other drugs.[8] It has also been used in race horses for the treatment and prevention of exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage.[9][10]

Medical uses

Furosemide (Lasix) for injection.

Furosemide is primarily used for the treatment of edema, but also in some cases of hypertension (where there is also kidney or heart impairment).[11] It is often viewed as a first-line agent in most people with edema caused by congestive heart failure because of its anti-vasoconstrictor and diuretic effects.[1][12] Compared to furosemide, torasemide (aka “torsemide”) may lower rehospitalisations and reduce symptoms of heart failure in some patients with acute or chronic heart failure, depending on individualised situations. However, there has been no evidence that torsemide reduces the risk of death.[13][14][15][16][17] Torsemide may also be safer than furosemide.[18][19] Current studies suggest that self-administered subcutaneous frusemide may be a feasible alternative to intravenous diuresis in selected patients with chronic heart failure and may reduce healthcare use and costs. However, current evidence remains limited, and no large randomised controlled trial has shown a statistically significant reduction in hospitalisation or mortality rates compared with standard IV therapy.[20][21][22]

Furosemide is also used for liver cirrhosis, kidney impairment, nephrotic syndrome, in adjunct therapy for swelling of the brain or lungs where rapid diuresis is required (IV injection), and in the management of severe hypercalcemia in combination with adequate rehydration.[23]

Kidney disease

In chronic kidney diseases with hypoalbuminemia, furosemide is used along with albumin to increase diuresis.[24] It is also used along with albumin in nephrotic syndrome to reduce edema.[25]

Other information

Furosemide is mainly excreted by tubular secretion in the kidney. In kidney impairment, clearance is reduced, increasing the risk of adverse effects.[1] Lower initial doses are recommended in older patients (to minimize side effects) and high doses may be needed in kidney failure.[26] It can also cause kidney damage; this is mainly by loss of excessive fluid (i.e., dehydration), and is usually reversible.[citation needed]

Furosemide acts within 1 hour of oral administration (after IV injection, the peak effect is within 30 minutes). Diuresis is usually complete within 6–8 hours of oral administration, but there is significant variation between individuals.[27]

Adverse effects

Furosemide also can lead to gout caused by hyperuricemia. Hyperglycemia is also a common side effect.[28][29][30]

The tendency, as for all loop diuretics, to cause low serum potassium concentration (hypokalemia) has given rise to combination products, either with potassium or with the potassium-sparing diuretic amiloride (Co-amilofruse). Other electrolyte abnormalities that can result from furosemide use include hyponatremia, hypochloremia, hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcemia.[31]

In the treatment of heart failure, many studies have shown that the long-term use of furosemide can cause varying degrees of thiamine deficiency, so thiamine supplementation is also suggested.[32]

Furosemide has been associated with ototoxicity in post-marketing reports and observational studies.[33] One observational study reported that furosemide use was associated with a 40% increased likelihood of developing hearing loss and a 33% increased likelihood of progression of existing mild-to-moderate hearing loss over a 10-year period.[34] However, age itself is a major risk factor for hearing loss, with the risk approximately doubling for every additional 5 years of age.[35][36] Consequently, the magnitude of the independent risk attributable to furosemide remains uncertain. A 2025 pharmacovigilance study suggested that hearing disturbances associated with furosemide are relatively uncommon and may occur less frequently compared with other loop diuretics such as torsemide and bumetanide.[37] Nevertheless, the study continued to demonstrate an association between furosemide and ototoxic effects, consistent with findings from earlier studies. 

 

Other precautions include nephrotoxicity, sulfonamide (sulfa) allergy, and increased free thyroid hormone effects with large doses.[38]

Interactions

Furosemide has potential interactions with these medications:[39]

Potentially hazardous interactions with other drugs:

Mechanism of action

Furosemide, like other loop diuretics, acts by inhibiting the luminal Na–K–Cl cotransporter in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, by binding to the Na-K-2Cl transporter, thus causing more sodium, chloride, and potassium to be excreted in the urine.[40]

The action on the distal tubules is independent of any inhibitory effect on carbonic anhydrase or aldosterone; it also abolishes the corticomedullary osmotic gradient and blocks negative, as well as positive, free water clearance. Because of the large NaCl absorptive capacity of the loop of Henle, diuresis is not limited by the development of acidosis, as it is with the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.[citation needed]

Additionally, furosemide is a noncompetitive subtype-specific blocker of GABA-A receptors.[41][42][43] Furosemide has been reported to reversibly antagonize GABA-evoked currents of α6β2γ2 receptors at μM concentrations, but not α1β2γ2 receptors.[41][43] During development, the α6β2γ2 receptor increases in expression in cerebellar granule neurons, corresponding to increased sensitivity to furosemide.[42]

Pharmacokinetics

  • Molecular weight (daltons) 330.7
  • % Bioavailability 47 – 70%
    • Bioavailability with end-stage renal disease 43 – 46%[44][45]
  • % Protein binding 91 – 99[46]
  • Volume of distribution (L/kg) 0.07 – 0.2[47][48]
    • Volume of distribution may be higher in patients with cirrhosis or nephrotic syndrome[47]
  • Excretion
    • % Excreted in urine (% of total dose) 60 – 90[47][48]
    • % Excreted unchanged in urine (% of total dose) 53.1 – 58.8 [49]
    • % Excreted in feces (% of total dose) 7 – 9[27]
    • % Excreted in bile (% of total dose) 6 – 9[48]
  • Approximately 10% is metabolized by the liver in healthy individuals, but this percentage may be greater in individuals with severe kidney failure [48]
  • Renal clearance (mL/min/kg) 2.0[47]
  • Elimination half-life (hrs) 2[46]
    • Prolonged in congestive heart failure (mean 3.4 hrs)[47][50]
    • Prolonged in severe kidney failure (4 – 6 hrs)[51] and anephric patients (1.5 – 9 hrs)[48]
  • Time to peak concentration (hrs)
    • Intravenous administration 0.3[52]
    • Oral solution 0.83[46]
    • Oral tablet 1.45[46]

The pharmacokinetics of furosemide are not significantly altered by food.[53]

No direct relationship has been found between furosemide concentration in the plasma and furosemide efficacy. Efficacy depends upon the concentration of furosemide in urine.[27]

Names

Furosemide is the INN and BAN.[54] The previous BAN was frusemide.

Brand names under which furosemide is marketed include Aisemide, Apo-Furosemide, Beronald, Desdemin, Discoid, Diural, Diurapid, Dryptal, Durafurid, Edemid, Errolon, Eutensin, Farsiretic, Flusapex, Frudix, Frusemide, Frusetic, Frusid, Fulsix, Fuluvamide, Furantril, Furesis, Furix, Furo-Puren, Furon, Furosedon, Fusid.frusone, Hydro-rapid, Impugan, Katlex, Lasilix, Lasix, Lodix, Lowpston, Macasirool, Mirfat, Nicorol, Odemase, Oedemex, Profemin, Rosemide, Rusyde, Salix, Seguril, Teva-Furosemide, Trofurit, Uremide, and Urex.

Veterinary uses

Furosemide for feline use

The diuretic effects are put to use most commonly in horses to prevent bleeding during a race. In the United States of America, under the racing rules of most states, horses that bleed from the nostrils (exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage) three times are permanently barred from racing. Sometime in the early 1970s, furosemide's ability to prevent, or at least greatly reduce, the incidence of bleeding by horses during races was discovered accidentally. Clinical trials followed, and by the decade's end, racing commissions in some states in the USA began legalizing its use on race horses. In 1995, New York became the last state in the United States to approve such use, after years of refusing to consider doing so.[55] Some states allow its use for all racehorses; some allow it only for confirmed "bleeders". Its use for this purpose is still prohibited in many other countries.[citation needed]

Furosemide is also used in horses for pulmonary edema, congestive heart failure (in combination with other drugs), and allergic reactions. Although it increases circulation to the kidneys, it does not help kidney function and is not recommended for kidney disease.[56]

It is also used to treat congestive heart failure (pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, and/or ascites) in cats and dogs.[57]

Horses

Furosemide is injected either intramuscularly or intravenously, usually 0.5-1.0 mg/kg twice/day, although less before a horse is raced. As with many diuretics, it can cause dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, including loss of potassium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium. Excessive use of furosemide will most likely lead to a metabolic alkalosis due to hypochloremia and hypokalemia. The drug should, therefore, not be used in horses that are dehydrated or experiencing kidney failure. It should be used with caution in horses with liver problems or electrolyte abnormalities. Overdose may lead to dehydration, change in drinking patterns and urination, seizures, gastrointestinal problems, kidney damage, lethargy, collapse, and coma.

Furosemide should be used with caution when combined with corticosteroids (as this increases the risk of electrolyte imbalance), aminoglycoside antibiotics (increases the risk of kidney or ear damage), and trimethoprim sulfa (causes decreased platelet count). It may also cause interactions with anesthetics, so its use should be related to the veterinarian if the animal is going into surgery, it decreases the kidneys' ability to excrete aspirin, so dosages will need to be adjusted if combined with that drug.

Furosemide may increase the risk of digoxin toxicity due to hypokalemia.

It is recommended that furosemide not be used during pregnancy or in a lactating mare, as it is passed through the placenta and milk in studies with other species. It should not be used in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (Equine Cushing's Disease).

Furosemide is detectable in urine 36–72 hours following injection. Its use is restricted by most equestrian organizations.

US major racetracks ban the use of furosemide on race days.[58]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 "Furosemide". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. https://www.drugs.com/monograph/furosemide.html. 
  2. ↑ "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: December 22, 2020". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Press release). 22 December 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2020. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  3. ↑ Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. 2006. p. 458. ISBN 978-3-527-60749-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA458. 
  4. ↑ The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2023. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02. 
  5. ↑ "Top 300 of 2023". https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx. 
  6. ↑ "Furosemide Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2014 - 2023". https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Furosemide. 
  7. ↑ "PCA England". https://nhsbsa-opendata.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/pca/pca_summary_narrative_2020_21_v001.html. 
  8. ↑ "World Anti-doping Code International Standard Prohibited List 2022". 2022. p. 12. https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2022list_final_en.pdf. 
  9. ↑ "Update on exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage". The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 31 (1): 187–198. April 2015. doi:10.1016/j.cveq.2014.11.011. PMID 25770069. 
  10. ↑ "Exercise induced pulmonary hemorrhage in horses: American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine consensus statement". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 29 (3): 743–758. 2015. doi:10.1111/jvim.12593. PMID 25996660. 
  11. ↑ "Furosemide". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. https://www.drugs.com/monograph/furosemide.html. 
  12. ↑ "Congestive Heart Failure And Pulmonary Edema". StatPearls. Treasure Island, Florida: StatPearls. 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554557/. Retrieved 8 May 2021. 
  13. ↑ "READY: relative efficacy of loop diuretics in patients with chronic systolic heart failure-a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised trials". Heart Failure Reviews 24 (4): 461–472. July 2019. doi:10.1007/s10741-019-09771-8. PMID 30874955. 
  14. ↑ "Effect of Torsemide vs Furosemide After Discharge on All-Cause Mortality in Patients Hospitalized With Heart Failure: The TRANSFORM-HF Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA 329 (3): 214–223. January 2023. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.23924. PMID 36648467. 
  15. ↑ "Clinical Outcomes With Furosemide Versus Torsemide in Patients With Heart Failure: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" (in en-US). Current Problems in Cardiology 48 (11). 2023-11-01. doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2023.101927. ISSN 0146-2806. PMID 37453532. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0146280623003444. 
  16. ↑ "Torsemide versus furosemide and intermediate-term outcomes in patients with heart failure: an updated meta-analysis". Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine 20 (6): 379–388. June 2019. doi:10.2459/JCM.0000000000000794. PMID 30950982. 
  17. ↑ "Meta-Analysis Comparing Torsemide Versus Furosemide in Patients With Heart Failure" (in English). The American Journal of Cardiology 125 (1): 92–99. January 2020. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2019.09.039. PMID 31699358. 
  18. ↑ "Diuretics: a review and update". Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics 19 (1): 5–13. January 2014. doi:10.1177/1074248413497257. PMID 24243991. 
  19. ↑ "A reappraisal of loop diuretic choice in heart failure patients". American Heart Journal 169 (3): 323–333. March 2015. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2014.12.009. PMID 25728721. 
  20. ↑ "From Oral to Subcutaneous Furosemide: The Road to Novel Opportunities to Manage Congestion" (in English). Structural Heart 6 (4). August 2022. doi:10.1016/j.shj.2022.100076. PMID 37288336. 
  21. ↑ "Reduced Heart Failure-Related Healthcare Costs with Furoscix Versus in-Hospital Intravenous Diuresis in Heart Failure Patients: The FREEDOM-HF Study". Future Cardiology 19 (8): 385–396. 2023. doi:10.2217/fca-2023-0071. PMID 37609913. https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent. Retrieved 2026-05-11. 
  22. ↑ "Avoiding Treatment in Hospital with Subcutaneous Furosemide for Worsening Heart Failure: A Pilot Study (AT HOME-HF)". JACC. Heart Failure 12 (11): 1830–1841. November 2024. doi:10.1016/j.jchf.2024.07.015. PMID 39269392. 
  23. ↑ Australian Medicines Handbook 2004 (5th ed.). Adelaide, S.A.: Australian Medicines Handbook Pty Ltd. 2004. ISBN 978-0-9578521-4-3. http://www.amh.net.au/. 
  24. ↑ "Co-administration of furosemide with albumin for overcoming diuretic resistance in patients with hypoalbuminemia: a meta-analysis". Journal of Critical Care 29 (2): 253–259. April 2014. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2013.10.004. PMID 24268626. 
  25. ↑ "Albumin and Furosemide Combination for Management of Edema in Nephrotic Syndrome: A Review of Clinical Studies". Cells 4 (4): 622–630. October 2015. doi:10.3390/cells4040622. PMID 26457719. 
  26. ↑ "British National Formulary". https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/furosemide.html#renalImpairment. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Furosemide (frusemide). A pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic review (Part I)". Clinical Pharmacokinetics 18 (5): 381–408. May 1990. doi:10.2165/00003088-199018050-00004. PMID 2185908. 
  28. ↑ "Diagnosis and treatment for hyperuricaemia and gout: a protocol for a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines and consensus statements". BMJ Open 7 (6). June 2017. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014928. PMID 28645962. 
  29. ↑ "Diagnosis and treatment for hyperuricemia and gout: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines and consensus statements". BMJ Open 9 (8). August 2019. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026677. PMID 31446403. 
  30. ↑ "Hyperuricemia and gout increased the risk of long-term mortality in patients with heart failure: insights from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey". Journal of Translational Medicine 21 (1): 463. July 2023. doi:10.1186/s12967-023-04307-z. PMID 37438830. 
  31. ↑ "Loop Diuretics in Clinical Practice". Electrolyte & Blood Pressure 13 (1): 17–21. June 2015. doi:10.5049/EBP.2015.13.1.17. PMID 26240596. 
  32. ↑ "Does Long-Term Furosemide Therapy Cause Thiamine Deficiency in Patients with Heart Failure? A Focused Review". The American Journal of Medicine 129 (7): 753.e7–753.e11. July 2016. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.01.037. PMID 26899752. 
  33. ↑ "Drug-induced hearing loss: a case/non-case study in the French pharmacovigilance database". Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology 34 (3): 397–407. June 2020. doi:10.1111/fcp.12533. PMID 31912913. 
  34. ↑ "The Contribution of Ototoxic Medications to Hearing Loss Among Older Adults". The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 75 (3): 561–566. February 2020. doi:10.1093/gerona/glz166. PMID 31282945. 
  35. ↑ "A disproportionality analysis of adverse events associated with loop diuretics in the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS)". BMC Pharmacology & Toxicology 26 (1): 63. March 2025. doi:10.1186/s40360-025-00890-7. PMID 40098168. 
  36. ↑ "The Contribution of Ototoxic Medications to Hearing Loss Among Older Adults". The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 75 (3): 561–566. February 2020. doi:10.1093/gerona/glz166. PMID 31282945. 
  37. ↑ "A disproportionality analysis of adverse events associated with loop diuretics in the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS)". BMC Pharmacology & Toxicology 26 (1): 63. March 2025. doi:10.1186/s40360-025-00890-7. PMID 40098168. 
  38. ↑ "UpToDate". https://www.uptodate.com/contents/furosemide-drug-information?search=furosemide&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~148&usage_type=panel&kp_tab=drug_general&display_rank=1#F174802. 
  39. ↑ Brand name:Lasix - Generic name: Furosemide Prescription Drug Information, Side Effects - PDRHealth
  40. ↑ Pharmacology and Therapeutics for Dentistry - E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. 3 September 2016. pp. 324–326. ISBN 978-0-323-44595-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=6xT7DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA326. Retrieved 4 November 2017. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Selective antagonist for the cerebellar granule cell-specific gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor". Molecular Pharmacology 47 (2): 283–289. February 1995. doi:10.1016/S0026-895X(25)08539-6. PMID 7870036. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Developmental changes of inhibitory synaptic currents in cerebellar granule neurons: role of GABA(A) receptor alpha 6 subunit". The Journal of Neuroscience 16 (11): 3630–3640. June 1996. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-11-03630.1996. PMID 8642407. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Functional characterization of human gamma-aminobutyric acidA receptors containing the alpha 4 subunit". Molecular Pharmacology 50 (3): 670–678. September 1996. doi:10.1016/S0026-895X(25)09339-3. PMID 8794909. 
  44. ↑ AMA Department of Drugs: Drug Evaluations Subscription, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1990.
  45. ↑ Knoben JE & Anderson PO (Eds): Handbook of Clinical Drug Data, 6th. Drug Intelligence Publications, Inc, Hamilton, IL, 1988.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 "Product Information: Lasix(R), furosemide.". Aventis Pharmaceuticals, Bridgewater, NJ. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2004. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/016273s061lbl.pdf. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (8th ed.). New York, NY: Pergamon Press. 1990. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 48.4 "Pharmacokinetics of orally administered furosemide". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 15 (2): 178–186. February 1974. doi:10.1002/cpt1974152178. PMID 4812154. 
  49. ↑ "Furosemide disposition in cirrhosis". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 31 (6): 719–725. June 1982. doi:10.1038/clpt.1982.101. PMID 7075120. 
  50. ↑ "Steady state absorption kinetics and pharmacodynamics of furosemide in congestive heart failure". International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy, and Toxicology 25 (3): 123–128. March 1987. PMID 3557737. 
  51. ↑ "Clinical pharmacology of loop diuretics". Drugs 41 (Supplement 3): 14–22. 1991. doi:10.2165/00003495-199100413-00004. PMID 1712712. 
  52. ↑ "Sublingual administration of furosemide: new application of an old drug". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 64 (6): 804–809. December 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.03035.x. PMID 17875188. 
  53. ↑ AHFS Drug Information 2004. McEvoy GK, ed. Furosemide. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists; 2004: 2260-4.
  54. ↑ "Naming human medicines". http://www.mhra.gov.uk/Howweregulate/Medicines/Namingofmedicines/ChangestomedicinesnamesBANstorINNs/index.htm. 
  55. ↑ "COMMENTARY: New York Buckles and Allows Lasix Use". 28 May 1995. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-05-28-sp-6875-story.html. 
  56. ↑ "Pharmacology of furosemide in the horse: a review". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 5 (4): 211–218. January 2022. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.1991.tb00951.x. PMID 1941755. 
  57. ↑ Small Animal Cardiovascular Medicine. Mosby. 1998. ISBN 978-0-8151-5140-1. https://archive.org/details/smallanimalcardi0000kitt. 
  58. ↑ "U.S. Racetracks to ban race-day Lasix in 2021". 18 April 2019. https://www.espn.com/horse-racing/story/_/id/26552958/us-racetracks-ban-race-day-lasix-2021. 

36. Favrelière S, Delaunay P, Lebreton JP, et al. Drug‐induced hearing loss: a case/non‐case study in the French pharmacovigilance database. Fundamental & clinical pharmacology. 2020;34(3):397-407. doi:10.1111/fcp.12533 37. Joo Y, Cruickshanks KJ, Klein BEK, Klein R, Hong O, Wallhagen MI. The Contribution of Ototoxic Medications to Hearing Loss Among Older Adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2020;75(3):561-566. doi:10.1093/gerona/glz166 38. Xue Z, Liu X, Liu Q, Yang X, Yu L. A disproportionality analysis of adverse events associated with loop diuretics in the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS). BMC pharmacology & toxicology. 2025;26(1):63. doi:10.1186/s40360-025-00890-7

Further reading

  • Aventis Pharma (1998). Lasix Approved Product Information. Lane Cove: Aventis Pharma Pty Ltd.
  • Understanding Equine Medications, Revised Edition (Horse Health Care Library). Eclipse Press. 2007. ISBN 978-1-58150-151-3. 



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