Chemistry:Calcium chloride

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Short description: Chemical compound

Calcium chloride
Structure of calcium chloride, (chlorine is green, calcium is gray)
Sample of calcium chloride
Names
IUPAC name
Calcium chloride
Other names
  • Neutral calcium chloride
  • calcium(II) chloride
  • calcium dichloride (1:2)
  • E509
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
EC Number
  • 233-140-8
RTECS number
  • EV9800000
UNII
Properties
CaCl2
Molar mass 110.98 g·mol−1
Appearance White hygroscopic powder
Odor Odorless
Density
  • 2.15 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
  • 2.24 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
  • 1.85 g/cm3 (dihydrate)
  • 1.83 g/cm3 (tetrahydrate)
  • 1.71 g/cm3 (hexahydrate)[1]
Melting point 772–775 °C (1,422–1,427 °F; 1,045–1,048 K)
anhydrous[5]
260 °C (500 °F; 533 K)
monohydrate, decomposes
175 °C (347 °F; 448 K)
dihydrate, decomposes
45.5 °C (113.9 °F; 318.6 K)
tetrahydrate, decomposes[5]
30 °C (86 °F; 303 K)
hexahydrate, decomposes[1]
Boiling point 1,935 °C (3,515 °F; 2,208 K) anhydrous[1]
Anhydrous:
74.5 g/100 mL (20 °C)[2]
Hexahydrate:
49.4 g/100 mL (−25 °C)
59.5 g/100 mL (0 °C)
65 g/100 mL (10 °C)
81.1 g/100 mL (25 °C)[1]
102.2 g/100 mL (30.2 °C)
α-Tetrahydrate:
90.8 g/100 mL (20 °C)
114.4 g/100 mL (40 °C)
Dihydrate:
134.5 g/100 mL (60 °C)
152.4 g/100 mL (100 °C)[3]
Solubility
Solubility in ethanol
  • 18.3 g/100 g (0 °C)
  • 25.8 g/100 g (20 °C)
  • 35.3 g/100 g (40 °C)
  • 56.2 g/100 g (70 °C)[4]
Solubility in methanol
  • 21.8 g/100 g (0 °C)
  • 29.2 g/100 g (20 °C)
  • 38.5 g/100 g (40 °C)[4]
Solubility in acetone 0.1 g/kg (20 °C)[4]
Solubility in pyridine 16.6 g/kg[4]
Acidity (pKa)
  • 8–9 (anhydrous)
  • 6.5–8.0 (hexahydrate)
−5.47·10−5 cm3/mol[1]
1.52
Viscosity
  • 3.34 cP (787 °C)
  • 1.44 cP (967 °C)[4]
Structure
  • Pnnm, No. 58 (anhydrous)
  • P42/mnm, No. 136 (anhydrous, >217 °C)[6]
  • 2/m 2/m 2/m (anhydrous)
  • 4/m 2/m 2/m (anhydrous, >217 °C)[6]
a = 6.259 Å, b = 6.444 Å, c = 4.17 Å (anhydrous, 17 °C)[6]
α = 90°, β = 90°, γ = 90°
Octahedral at Ca2+ centres (anhydrous)
Thermochemistry
  • 72.89 J/(mol·K) (anhydrous)[1]
  • 106.23 J/(mol·K) (monohydrate)
  • 172.92 J/(mol·K) (dihydrate)
  • 251.17 J/(mol·K) (tetrahydrate)
  • 300.7 J/(mol·K) (hexahydrate)[5]
108.4 J/(mol·K)[1][5]
  • −795.42 kJ/mol (anhydrous)[1]
  • −1110.98 kJ/mol (monohydrate)
  • −1403.98 kJ/mol (dihydrate)
  • −2009.99 kJ/mol (tetrahydrate)
  • −2608.01 kJ/mol (hexahydrate)[5]
−748.81 kJ/mol[1][5]
Pharmacology
1=ATC code }} A12AA07 (WHO) B05XA07 (WHO), G04BA03 (WHO)
Hazards
Main hazards Irritant
GHS pictograms GHS07: Harmful[7]
GHS Signal word Warning
H319[7]
P305+351+338[7]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
1,000-1,400 mg/kg (rats, oral)[8]
Related compounds
Other anions
Other cations
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Infobox references
Tracking categories (test):

Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl
2. It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide.

Calcium chloride is commonly encountered as a hydrated solid with generic formula CaCl
2 · nH
2O, where n = 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6. These compounds are mainly used for de-icing and dust control. Because the anhydrous salt is hygroscopic and deliquescent, it is used as a desiccant.[10]

History

Calcium chloride was apparently discovered in the 15th century but wasn't studied properly until the 18th century.[11] It was historically called "fixed sal ammoniac" (Latin: sal ammoniacum fixum[12]) because it was synthesized during the distillation of ammonium chloride with lime and was nonvolatile (while the former appeared to sublime); in more modern times (18th–19th cc.) it was called "muriate of lime" (Latin: murias calcis, calcaria muriatica[12]).[13]

Uses

De-icing and freezing-point depression

Main article: Chemistry:De-icing
Bulk CaCl
2 for de-icing in Japan

By depressing the freezing point of water, calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and is used to de-ice. This application consumes the greatest amount of calcium chloride. Calcium chloride is relatively harmless to plants and soil. As a de-icing agent, it is much more effective at lower temperatures than sodium chloride. When distributed for this use, it usually takes the form of small, white spheres a few millimeters in diameter, called prills. Solutions of calcium chloride can prevent freezing at temperatures as low as −52 °C (−62 °F), making it ideal for filling agricultural implement tires as a liquid ballast, aiding traction in cold climates.[14]

It is also used in domestic and industrial chemical air dehumidifiers.[15]

Road surfacing

Calcium chloride was sprayed on this road to prevent weathering, giving it a wet appearance even in dry weather.

The second largest application of calcium chloride exploits its hygroscopic nature and the tackiness of its hydrates; calcium chloride is highly hygroscopic and its hydration is an exothermic process. A concentrated solution keeps a liquid layer on the surface of dirt roads, which suppresses the formation of dust. It keeps the finer dust particles on the road, providing a cushioning layer. If these are allowed to blow away, the large aggregate begins to shift around and the road breaks down. Using calcium chloride reduces the need for grading by as much as 50% and the need for fill-in materials as much as 80%.[16]

Food

In the food industry, calcium chloride is frequently employed as a firming agent in canned vegetables, particularly for canned tomatoes and cucumber pickles.[17][18][19][20] It is also used in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices.[21][22][23] It is also used to enhance the texture of various other products, such as whole apples, whole hot peppers, whole and sliced strawberries, diced tomatoes, and whole peaches.[24][25]

The firming effect of calcium chloride can be attributed to several mechanisms:[24]

  1. Complexation, since calcium ions form coordination complexes with pectin, a polysaccharide found in the cell wall and middle lamella of plant tissues.[24]
  2. Membrane stabilization, since calcium ions contribute to the stabilization of the cell membrane.[24]
  3. Turgor pressure regulation, since calcium ions influence cell turgor pressure, which is the pressure exerted by the cell contents against the cell wall.[24]

Calcium chloride's freezing-point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the caramel in caramel-filled chocolate bars. Also, it is frequently added to sliced apples to maintain texture.[26]

In brewing beer, calcium chloride is sometimes used to correct mineral deficiencies in the brewing water. It affects flavor and chemical reactions during the brewing process, and can also affect yeast function during fermentation.[27][28][29][30][31]

In cheesemaking, calcium chloride is sometimes added to processed (pasteurized/homogenized) milk to restore the natural balance between calcium and protein in casein. It is added before the coagulant.[32]

Calcium chloride is also commonly used as an "electrolyte" in sports drinks and other beverages; as a food additive used in conjunction with other inorganic salts it adds taste to bottled water.[33][34][35]

The average intake of calcium chloride as food additives has been estimated to be 160–345 mg/day.[36] Calcium chloride is permitted as a food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant and firming agent with the E number E509.[37] It is considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[38] Its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under the US National Organic Program.[39]

The elemental calcium content in calcium chloride hexahydrate (CaCl2·6H2O) is approximately 18.2%. This means that for every gram of calcium chloride hexahydrate, there are about 182 milligrams of elemental calcium.

For anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2), the elemental calcium content is almost twice higher, that is around 36.1% (for every gram of anhydrous calcium chloride there are about 361 milligrams of elemental calcium).

Calcium chloride has a very salty taste and can cause mouth and throat irritation at high concentrations, so it is typically not the first choice for long-term oral supplementation (as a calcium supplement).[40][41] Calcium chloride is highly soluble in water – dissociating into calcium and chloride ions when dissolved. These ions are efficiently absorbed from the intestine.[42] The dissolution of calcium chloride in water is exothermic; releasing energy as heat. If undissolved calcium chloride is ingested, this can lead to burns in the mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach. Ingestion of large amounts of undissolved calcium chloride has been reported to result in burns, and rarely, necrosis of the stomach.[43][44]

The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles without increasing the food's sodium content.[45]

Calcium chloride is used to prevent cork spot and bitter pit on apples by spraying on the tree during the late growing season.[46]

Drying tubes are frequently packed with calcium chloride. Kelp is dried with calcium chloride for use in producing sodium carbonate. Anhydrous calcium chloride has been approved by the FDA as a packaging aid to ensure dryness (CPG 7117.02).[47]

The hydrated salt can be dried for re-use but will dissolve in its own water of hydration if heated quickly and form a hard amalgamated solid when cooled.

Metal reduction flux

Similarly, CaCl
2 is used as a flux and electrolyte in the FFC Cambridge electrolysis process for titanium production, where it ensures the proper exchange of calcium and oxygen ions between the electrodes.

Medical use

Calcium chloride infusions may be used as an intravenous therapy to prevent hypocalcemia.[48][49][50][51][52]

Calcium chloride is a highly soluble calcium salt. Hexahydrate calcium chloride (CaCl2·6H2O) has solubility in water of 811 g/L at 25 °C.[1] Calcium chloride when taken orally completely dissociates into calcium ions (Ca2+) in the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in readily bioavailable calcium. The high concentration of calcium ions facilitates efficient absorption in the small intestine.[42][53] However, the use of calcium chloride as a source of calcium taken orally is less common compared to other calcium salts because of potential adverse effects such as gastrointestinal irritation and discomfort.[53][54][55]

When tasted, calcium chloride exhibits a distinctive bitter flavor alongside its salty taste. The bitterness is attributable to the calcium ions and their interaction with human taste receptors: certain members of the TAS2R family of bitter taste receptors respond to calcium ions; the bitter perception of calcium is thought to be a protective mechanism to avoid ingestion of toxic substances, as many poisonous compounds taste bitter. While chloride ions (Cl−) primarily contribute to saltiness, at higher concentrations, they can enhance the bitter sensation. The combination of calcium and chloride ions intensifies the overall bitterness. At lower concentrations, calcium chloride may taste predominantly salty. The salty taste arises from the electrolyte nature of the compound, similar to sodium chloride (table salt). As the concentration increases, the bitter taste becomes more pronounced: the increased presence of calcium ions enhances the activation of bitterness receptors.[56][57][58]

Other applications

Calcium chloride is used in concrete mixes to accelerate the initial setting, but chloride ions lead to corrosion of steel rebar, so it should not be used in reinforced concrete.[59] The anhydrous form of calcium chloride may also be used for this purpose and can provide a measure of the moisture in concrete.[60]



Calcium chloride (CaCl2) acts as flux material, decreasing the melting point, in the Davy process for the industrial production of sodium metal through the electrolysis of molten NaCl.

Calcium chloride can be used to precipitate fluoride ions from water as insoluble CaF2.

For watering plants to use as a fertilizer, a moderate concentration of calcium chloride is used to avoid potential toxicity: 5 to 10 mM (millimolar) is generally effective and safe for most plants—that is 0.55–1.11 grams (0.019–0.039 oz) of anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl2) per liter of water or 1.10–2.19 grams (0.039–0.077 oz) of calcium chloride hexahydrate (CaCl2·6H2O) per liter of water.[61][62] Calcium chloride solution is used immediately after preparation to prevent potential alterations in its chemical composition.[63][64] Besides that, calcium chloride is highly hygroscopic, meaning it readily absorbs moisture from the air.[65] If the solution is left standing, it can absorb additional water vapor, leading to dilution and a decrease in the intended concentration.[65] Prolonged standing may lead to the precipitation of calcium hydroxide or other insoluble calcium compounds, reducing the availability of calcium ions in the solution[66] and reducing the effectiveness of the solution as a calcium source for plants.[66] Nutrient solutions can become a medium for microbial growth if stored for extended periods.[67] Microbial contamination may alter the composition of the solution and potentially introduce pathogens to the plants.[67] When dissolved in water, calcium chloride can undergo hydrolysis, especially over time, which can lead to the formation of small amounts of hydrochloric acid and calcium hydroxide: Ca+2+2H2O ⇌ Ca(OH)2+2H+. This reaction can lower the pH of the solution, making it more acidic.[68] Acidic solutions may harm plant tissues and disrupt nutrient uptake. Calcium chloride dihydrate (20 percent by weight) dissolved in ethanol (95 percent ABV) has been used as a sterilant for male animals. The solution is injected into the testes of the animal. Within one month, necrosis of testicular tissue results in sterilization.[69][70][non-primary sources needed]

Cocaine producers in Colombia import tons of calcium chloride to recover solvents that are on the INCB Red List and are more tightly controlled.[71]

Hazards

Although the salt is non-toxic in small quantities when wet, the strongly hygroscopic properties of non-hydrated calcium chloride present some hazards. It can act as an irritant by desiccating moist skin. Solid calcium chloride dissolves exothermically, and burns can result in the mouth and esophagus if it is ingested. Ingestion of concentrated solutions or solid products may cause gastrointestinal irritation or ulceration.[72]

Consumption of calcium chloride can lead to hypercalcemia.[73]

Properties

Flame test of CaCl
2

Calcium chloride dissolves in water, producing chloride and the aquo complex [Ca(H
2O)
6]2+. In this way, these solutions are sources of "free" calcium and free chloride ions. This description is illustrated by the fact that these solutions react with phosphate sources to give a solid precipitate of calcium phosphate:

3 CaCl
2 + 2 PO3−
4 → Ca
3(PO
4)
2 + 6 Cl−

Calcium chloride has a very high enthalpy change of solution, indicated by considerable temperature rise accompanying dissolution of the anhydrous salt in water. This property is the basis for its largest-scale application.

Aqueous solutions of calcium chloride tend to be slightly acidic due to the influence of the chloride ions on the hydrogen ion concentration in water. The slight acidity of calcium chloride solutions is primarily due to the increased ionic strength of the solution, which can influence the activity of hydrogen ions and lower the pH slightly. The pH of calcium chloride in aqueous solution is the following:[74][75]

Calcium chloride pH in aqueous solution
Concentration (mol/L) Approximate pH
0.01 6.5 – 7.0
0.1 6.0 – 6.5
1.0 5.5 – 6.0

Molten calcium chloride can be electrolysed to give calcium metal and chlorine gas:

CaCl
2 → Ca + Cl
2

Preparation

File:Ca(aq)6 improved image.tif

In much of the world, calcium chloride is derived from limestone as a by-product of the Solvay process, which follows the net reaction below:[10]

2 NaCl + CaCO
3 → Na
2CO
3 + CaCl
2

North American consumption in 2002 was 1,529,000 tonnes (3.37 billion pounds).[76] In the US, most calcium chloride is obtained by purification from brine. As with most bulk commodity salt products, trace amounts of other cations from the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (groups 1 and 2) and other anions from the halogens (group 17) typically occur.[10]

Occurrence

Calcium chloride occurs as the rare evaporite minerals sinjarite (dihydrate) and antarcticite (hexahydrate).[77][78][79] Another natural hydrate known is ghiaraite – a tetrahydrate.[80][79] The related minerals chlorocalcite (potassium calcium chloride, KCaCl
3) and tachyhydrite (calcium magnesium chloride, Ca Mg
2Cl
6 · 12H
2O) are also very rare.[81][82][79] The same is true for rorisite, CaClF (calcium chloride fluoride).[83][79]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 Lide, David R., ed (2009). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (90th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0. 
  2. ↑ "Calcium chloride (anhydrous)". International Programme on Chemical Safety and the European Commission. http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1184.htm. 
  3. ↑ Seidell, Atherton; Linke, William F. (1919). Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds (second ed.). New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. p. 196. https://archive.org/details/solubilitiesino01seidgoog. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Anatolievich, Kiper Ruslan. "Properties of substance: calcium chloride". chemister.ru. http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=558. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Pradyot, Patnaik (2019). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-07-049439-8. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Müller, Ulrich (2006). Inorganic Structural Chemistry (second ed.). England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-470-01864-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=s3KlfXCY11sC&pg=PA33. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Sigma-Aldrich Co., Calcium chloride.
  8. ↑ Garrett, Donald E. (2004). Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride. Elsevier. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-08-047290-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2SVcUBHZgC&pg=PA379. Retrieved 29 August 2018. "Its toxicity upon ingestion, is indicated by the test on rats: oral LD50 (rat) is 1.0–1.4 g/kg (the lethal dose for half of the test animals, in this case rats...)" 
  9. ↑ "MSDS of Calcium chloride". fishersci.ca. Fisher Scientific. https://www.fishersci.ca/viewmsds.do?catNo=C6143. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Robert Kemp, Suzanne E. Keegan "Calcium Chloride" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a04_547
  11. ↑ Peck, Eugene L.; Hamilton, J. Hugh; Lewis, John Roberts; Hogan, Mervin B.; Kusian, Ross Northey; Cope, William J. (1954). Proceedings of the First Annual Heating and Air Conditioning Conference: 1953-1955. University of Utah, Department of Metallurgy. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFZLAQAAMAAJ&q=+15th+century. Retrieved 4 February 2024. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hartmann, Philipp Karl (1816) (in la). Pharmacologia Dynamica: Usui Academico Adcommodata. Kupffer et Wimmer. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx9VAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA299. Retrieved 29 December 2023. 
  13. ↑ Ottley, William Campbell (1826). A dictionary of chemistry and of mineralogy as connected with it. Murray. https://books.google.com/books?id=5LzUgQngwHgC&pg=PP374. Retrieved 29 December 2023. 
  14. ↑ "Binary Phase diagram: The Calcium Chloride – water system". Aqueous Solutions Aps. October 2016. http://www.phasediagram.dk/binary/calcium_chloride.htm. 
  15. ↑ "Keeping Things Dry". humantouchofchemistry.com. http://humantouchofchemistry.com/keeping-things-dry.htm. 
  16. ↑ "Dust: Don't Eat It! Control It!". Road Management & Engineering Journal. US Roads (TranSafety Inc.). 1 June 1998. http://www.usroads.com/journals/rmej/9806/rm980603.htm. 
  17. ↑ M. Shafiur Rahman, ed (2007). Handbook of Food Preservation (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-57444-606-7. https://www.cold.org.gr/library/downloads/Docs/Handbook%20of%20Food%20Preservation.PDF. Retrieved 17 November 2024. 
  18. ↑ McFeeters, Roger F.; Pérez-Díaz, Ilenys (2010). "Fermentation of Cucumbers Brined with Calcium Chloride Instead of Sodium Chloride". Journal of Food Science 75 (3): C291-6. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01558.x. PMID 20492282. 
  19. ↑ Food Chemicals Codex. The United States Pharmacopeial Convention. June 2013. ISBN 978-1-936424-26-9. 
  20. ↑ Guillou, A.A.; Floros, J.D.; Cousin, M.A. (1992). "Calcium Chloride and Potassium Sorbate Reduce Sodium Chloride used during Natural Cucumber Fermentation and Storage". Journal of Food Science 57 (6): 1364–1368. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1992.tb06859.x. 
  21. ↑ Devanampriyan Rajan; Chitra Devi Venkatachalam; Mahalakshmi R. L. Sruthi; Shaikh Mohd Riyan (2024). Emulsification and Spherification. Structured Foods. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-003-35544-1. 
  22. ↑ Vega, Cesar; Ubbink, Job; Linden, Erik van der (13 August 2013). The Kitchen as Laboratory: Reflections on the Science of Food and Cooking. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15345-4. 
  23. ↑ This, Hervé (18 August 2008). Molecular Gastronomy: Exploring the Science of Flavor. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13313-5. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Luna-Guzmán, Irene; Barrett, Diane M (May 2000). "Comparison of calcium chloride and calcium lactate effectiveness in maintaining shelf stability and quality of fresh-cut cantaloupes". Postharvest Biology and Technology 19 (1): 61–72. doi:10.1016/S0925-5214(00)00079-X. 
  25. ↑ "Apple Caviar Technique". StarChefs Studio. StarChefs.com. April 2004. http://www.starchefs.com/events/studio/techniques/FAdria/index.shtml. 
  26. ↑ "Pre- and Postharvest Treatments Affecting Nutritional Quality". Comprehensive Biotechnology. Pre- and Postharvest Treatments Affecting Nutritional Quality. Academic Press. 2011. pp. 349–357. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-088504-9.00275-0. ISBN 978-0-08-088504-9. 
  27. ↑ Palmer, John J.; Kaminski, Colin (2013). Water: A Comprehensive Guide for Brewers. Brewers Publications. ISBN 978-0-937381-99-1. 
  28. ↑ Briggs, Briggs; Boulton, Chris; Brooke, Peter (28 September 2004). Brewing: Science and Practice. Woodhead Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85573-490-6. 
  29. ↑ Eumann, M. (2006). "Water in brewing". Brewing. Water in brewing. pp. 183–207. doi:10.1533/9781845691738.183. ISBN 978-1-84569-003-8. 
  30. ↑ Lewis, Michael J.; Young, Tom W. (2001). Brewing. Water for brewing. pp. 57–70. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0729-1_4. ISBN 978-0-306-47274-9. 
  31. ↑ Walstra, P.; Walstra, Pieter; Wouters, Jan T. M.; Geurts, Tom J. (29 September 2005). Dairy Science and Technology, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8247-2763-5. 
  32. ↑ Fox, Patrick F.; Guinee, Timothy P.; Cogan, Timothy M.; McSweeney, Paul L. H. (2017). Fundamentals of Cheese Science. Springer US. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-7681-9. ISBN 978-1-4899-7681-9. 
  33. ↑ "Lab Suppliers: Calcium chloride dihydrate extra pure, for table water FCC, E 509. CAS 10035-04-8, pH 4.5 - 8.5 (50 g/l, H₂O, 20 °C)". https://products.lab-suppliers.com/product/calcium-chloride-dihydrate-ep-table-water-25kg. 
  34. ↑ "Why Your Bottled Water Contains Four Different Ingredients". 24 July 2014. https://time.com/3029191/bottled-water-ingredients-nutrition-health/. 
  35. ↑ "Brands Of Bottled Water With Electrolytes (Confirmed By Lab Tests) - Water Purification Guide". 3 July 2021. https://waterpurificationguide.com/brands-of-bottled-water-with-electrolytes/. 
  36. ↑ Calcium Chloride SIDS Initial Assessment Profile, UNEP Publications, SIAM 15, Boston, 22–25 October 2002, pp. 13–14.
  37. ↑ "Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers". Food Standards Agency. https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/approved-additives-and-e-numbers. 
  38. ↑ 21 CFR § 184.1193
  39. ↑ 7 CFR § 205.602
  40. ↑ "Calcium Chloride: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings". https://www.drugs.com/cdi/calcium-chloride.html. 
  41. ↑ "Calcium supplementation and iron status of females". Nutrition 17 (1): 46–51. January 2001. doi:10.1016/s0899-9007(00)00482-2. PMID 11165888. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Calcium chloride (CaCl2): Human health tier II assessment". 27 November 2014. https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/sites/default/files/Calcium%20chloride%20%28CaCl2%29_Human%20health%20tier%20II%20assessment.pdf. 
  43. ↑ Remes-Troche, Jose Maria (2 January 2013). "A 'black stomach' due to ingestion of anhydrous calcium chloride". BMJ Case Reports: bcr2012007716. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-007716. PMID 23283618. 
  44. ↑ "Gastric Necrosis because of Ingestion of Calcium Chloride". ACG Case Reports Journal 7 (8). 2020. doi:10.14309/crj.0000000000000446. PMID 32903978. 
  45. ↑ McMurtrie, Erin K.; Johanningsmeier, Suzanne D. (2018). "Quality of Cucumbers Commercially Fermented in Calcium Chloride Brine without Sodium Salts". Journal of Food Quality: 1–13. doi:10.1155/2018/8051435. 
  46. ↑ "Cork Spot and Bitter Pit of Apples", Richard C. Funt and Michael A. Ellis, Ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/plpath-fru-01
  47. ↑ "CPG 7117.02". FDA Compliance Articles. US Food and Drug Administration. March 1995. https://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgfod/cpg500-400.html. 
  48. ↑ Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Kasper, Dennis L.; Hauser, Stephen L.; Longo, Dan Louis; Larry Jameson, J. (2022). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-1-264-26850-4. 
  49. ↑ Hofer, Aldebaran M.; Brown, Edward M. (2003). "Extracellular calcium sensing and signalling". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 4 (7): 530–538. doi:10.1038/nrm1154. PMID 12838336. 
  50. ↑ "Clinical Characteristics of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Continued on Oral Antidiabetes Medications in the Hospital". Endocrine Practice 26 (2): 167–173. 2020. doi:10.4158/EP-2018-0524. PMID 31557075. 
  51. ↑ Feingold, K. R. et al. (2000). Hypocalcemia: Diagnosis and Treatment. 
  52. ↑ Brunton, Laurence L.; Knollmann, Björn C. (2022). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-1-264-25807-9. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Absorbability of calcium sources: the limited role of solubility". Calcif Tissue Int 46 (5): 300–4. May 1990. doi:10.1007/BF02563819. PMID 2110852. 
  54. ↑ "Calcium supplementation in clinical practice: a review of forms, doses, and indications". Nutr Clin Pract 22 (3): 286–96. June 2007. doi:10.1177/0115426507022003286. PMID 17507729. 
  55. ↑ Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium; Ross, A. C.; Taylor, C. L.; Yaktine, A. L.; Del Valle, H. B. (2011). Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. doi:10.17226/13050. ISBN 978-0-309-16394-1. 
  56. ↑ "The receptors and cells for mammalian taste". Nature 444 (7117): 288–94. November 2006. doi:10.1038/nature05401. PMID 17108952. Bibcode: 2006Natur.444..288C. 
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  59. ↑ "Accelerating Concrete Set Time". Federal Highway Administration. 1 June 1999. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/acclerat.htm. 
  60. ↑ National Research Council (U.S.). Building Research Institute (1962). Adhesives in Building: Selection and Field Application; Pressure-sensitive Tapes. National Academy of Science-National Research Council. pp. 24–5. 
  61. ↑ Xu, Chengbin; Li, Xuemei; Zhang, Lihong (2 July 2013). "The Effect of Calcium Chloride on Growth, Photosynthesis, and Antioxidant Responses of Zoysia japonica under Drought Conditions". PLOS ONE 8 (7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068214. PMID 23844172. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...868214X. 
  62. ↑ Kang, Jianjun; Zhao, Wenzhi; Zheng, Ying; Zhang, Dong Mei; Zhou, Hong; Sun, Pengcheng (13 April 2017). "Calcium chloride improves photosynthesis and water status in the C4 succulent xerophyte Haloxylon ammodendron under water deficit". Plant Growth Regulation 82 (3): 467–478. doi:10.1007/s10725-017-0273-4. Bibcode: 2017PGroR..82..467K. 
  63. ↑ Hepler, Peter K. (2005). "Calcium: A Central Regulator of Plant Growth and Development". The Plant Cell 17 (8): 2142–2155. doi:10.1105/tpc.105.032508. PMID 16024507. Bibcode: 2005PlanC..17.2142H. 
  64. ↑ Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo (2015). Plant Physiology and Development (6th ed.). Sinauer Associates. pp. 157–159. ISBN 978-1-60535-255-8. 
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  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Marschner, Petra (2012). Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants (3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 135–137. ISBN 978-0-12-384905-2. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Jiao, Wei; Zhou, Wei; Tan, Dongxu (2019). "Effects of Calcium Chloride on Microbial Community and Function in Rhizosphere Soil of Tomato Plants". Frontiers in Microbiology 10 (2): 250–259. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.02052. PMID 31543892. 
  68. ↑ White, P. J.; Broadley, M. R. (2003). "Calcium in Plants". Annals of Botany 92 (4): 487–511. doi:10.1093/aob/mcg164. PMID 12933363. 
  69. ↑ Koger, L. M. (November 1977). "Calcium Chloride, Practical Necrotising Agent". The Bovine Practitioner: 118–119. doi:10.21423/bovine-vol1977no12p118-119. [non-primary source needed]
  70. ↑ Jana, Kuladip; Samanta, Prabhat K (2011). "Clinical Evaluation of Non-surgical Sterilization of Male Cats with Single Intra-testicular Injection of Calcium Chloride". BMC Veterinary Research 7 (1): 39. doi:10.1186/1746-6148-7-39. PMID 21774835. [non-primary source needed]
  71. ↑ Smith, Michael; Simpson, Cam (26 October 2020). "Narcos Are Waging a New Drug War Over a Texas Company's Basic Chemical". https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-10-26/tetra-s-tti-calcium-chloride-is-fueling-a-cocaine-war-in-south-america. 
  72. ↑ "Product Safety Assessment (PSA): Calcium Chloride". Dow Chemical Company. 2 May 2006. http://www.dow.com/productsafety/finder/cacl_2.htm. 
  73. ↑ "Calcium Chloride Possible Side Affects". www.drugs.com. https://www.drugs.com/pro/calcium-chloride.html. 
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  75. ↑ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC Press. 4 June 2024. ISBN 978-1-032-65562-8. 
  76. ↑ Calcium Chloride SIDS Initial Assessment Profile, UNEP Publications, SIAM 15, Boston, 22–25 October 2002, page 11.
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  78. ↑ "Antarcticite". www.mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-251.html. 
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  80. ↑ "Ghiaraite". www.mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-43592.html. 
  81. ↑ "Chlorocalcite". www.mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-1020.html. 
  82. ↑ "Tachyhydrite". www.mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-3865.html. 
  83. ↑ "Rorisite". www.mindat.org. https://www.mindat.org/min-3446.html. 



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