Chemistry:Entourage effect
The entourage effect is a hypothesis that cannabis compounds other than tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) act synergistically with it to modulate the overall psychoactive effects of the plant.[1][2]
Compounds
Cannabidiol
Vaped or smoked cannabidiol (CBD), primarily between 250 °C (482 °F) to 300 °C (572 °F), may be converted into THC.[3] Cannabis strains with relatively high CBD:THC ratios have unknown effects on anxiety.[4][5]
Terpenes
There are numerous terpenes present in the cannabis plant and variation in their contents between strains. Some terpenes are under preliminary research for their possible effects in vivo.[6][2][7]
Hypothetical differences between C. indica and C. sativa
The effects of sativa may be used for a high, while indica may be used for its sedative effects.[citation needed] Both types are used as medical cannabis.
- Cannabinoid ratios: On average, Cannabis indica has higher levels of THC compared to CBD, whereas Cannabis sativa has lower levels of THC to CBD.[8] However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005.[9]
- Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and bergamotene, while Indica ancestry is associated with myrcene, elemene, and sesquiterpene alcohols.[citation needed]
Criticism
In 2022, studies found that plants identified as "indica" or "sativa" based on common methods of differentiation (e.g. plant height or leaf shape) are not, in fact, chemically distinguishable, with many identified as "sativa" having cannabinoid ratios predicted of "indica" plants and vice versa. The authors have concluded that the chemical makeup of cannabis plants cannot be reliably determined by simple inspection of the plants' physical characteristics and that the "indica" and "sativa" labels are not informative as to the cannabinoids (or other chemical components) delivered.[10][11]
Background
The phrase entourage effect was introduced in 1999.[12][13] While originally identified as a novel method of endocannabinoid regulation by which multiple endogenous chemical species display a cooperative effect in eliciting a cellular response, the term has evolved to describe the polypharmacy effects of combined cannabis phytochemicals or whole plant extracts.[14] The phrase now commonly refers to the compounds present in cannabis supposedly working in concert to create "the sum of all the parts that leads to the magic or power of cannabis".[6] Other cannabinoids, terpenoids, and flavonoids may be part of an entourage effect.[13]
Criticism
A 2020 review of research found no entourage effect in most studies, while other reports claimed mixed results, including the possibility of increased adverse effects.[4] The review concluded that the term, "entourage effect", is unfounded and used mainly for marketing.[4]
References
- ↑ "Cannabis, from plant to pill". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 84 (11): 2463–2467. November 2018. doi:10.1111/bcp.13618. PMID 29701252.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects". British Journal of Pharmacology 163 (7): 1344–64. August 2011. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x. PMID 21749363.
- ↑ Czégény, Z; Nagy, G; Babinszki, B; Bajtel, Á; Sebestyén, Z; Kiss, T; Csupor-Löffler, B; Tóth, B et al. (26 April 2021). "CBD, a precursor of THC in e-cigarettes.". Scientific Reports 11 (1): 8951. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88389-z. PMID 33903673. Bibcode: 2021NatSR..11.8951C.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "The "entourage effect" or "hodge-podge hashish": the questionable rebranding, marketing, and expectations of cannabis polypharmacy". Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 13 (8): 835–845. August 2020. doi:10.1080/17512433.2020.1721281. PMID 32116073.
- ↑ Handbook of Psychotropic Herbs: A Scientific Analysis of Herbal Remedies for Psychiatric Conditions. Routledge. 22 December 2015. pp. 233–. ISBN 978-1-136-38607-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=cZtACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT233.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Some of the Parts: Is Marijuana's "Entourage Effect" Scientifically Valid?". Scientific American. 20 April 2017. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/some-of-the-parts-is-marijuana-rsquo-s-ldquo-entourage-effect-rdquo-scientifically-valid/.
- ↑ LaVigne, Justin E.; Hecksel, Ryan; Keresztes, Attila; Streicher, John M. (15 April 2021). "Cannabis sativa terpenes are cannabimimetic and selectively enhance cannabinoid activity" (in en). Scientific Reports 11: 8232. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-87740-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-87740-8.
- ↑ Karl W. Hillig; Paul G. Mahlberg (2004). "A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)". American Journal of Botany 91 (6): 966–975. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.6.966. PMID 21653452.
- ↑ "Potency trends of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol in cannabis in the Netherlands: 2005-15". Addiction 110 (12): 1941–50. 2015. doi:10.1111/add.13082. PMID 26234170.
- ↑ Smith, Christiana J.; Vergara, Daniela; Keegan, Brian; Jikomes, Nick (2022). "The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States". PLOS ONE 17 (5): –0267498. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267498. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 35588111. Bibcode: 2022PLoSO..1767498S.
- ↑ Murovec, Jana; Eržen, Jan Jurij; Flajšman, Marko; Vodnik, Dominik (2022). "Analysis of Morphological Traits, Cannabinoid Profiles, THCAS Gene Sequences, and Photosynthesis in Wide and Narrow Leaflet High-Cannabidiol Breeding Populations of Medical Cannabis". Frontiers in Plant Science 13: 786161. doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.786161. ISSN 1664-462X. PMID 35283868.
- ↑ "An entourage effect: inactive endogenous fatty acid glycerol esters enhance 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol cannabinoid activity". European Journal of Pharmacology 353 (1): 23–31. July 1998. doi:10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00392-6. PMID 9721036.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Medical marijuana and "the entourage effect"". CNN. 11 March 2014. https://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/11/health/gupta-marijuana-entourage/index.html.
- ↑ "The Case for the Entourage Effect and Conventional Breeding of Clinical Cannabis: No "Strain," No Gain". Frontiers in Plant Science 9: 1969. 2019-01-09. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01969. PMID 30687364.
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