Biology:Psilocybe semilanceata

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Short description: Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae, native to Europe

Psilocybe semilanceata
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Species:
P. semilanceata
Binomial name
Psilocybe semilanceata
(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)
Synonyms[1][2]
  • Agaricus semilanceatus Fr. (1838)
  • Geophila semilanceata (Fr.) Quél. (1886)
  • Panaeolus semilanceatus (Fr.) J.E.Lange (1936)
  • Panaeolus semilanceatus (Fr.) J.E.Lange (1939)
Psilocybe semilanceata
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
float
Mycological characteristics
gills on hymenium
cap is conical or umbonate
hymenium is adnate or adnexed
stipe is bare
spore print is brown to purple
ecology is saprotrophic
edibility: psychoactive

Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, and one of the most potent. The mushrooms have a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. They are yellow to brown, covered with radial grooves when moist, and fade to a lighter color as they mature. Their stipes tend to be slender and long, and the same color or slightly lighter than the cap. The gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed (narrowly attached), and they are initially cream-colored before tinting purple to black as the spores mature. The spores are dark purplish-brown en masse, ellipsoid in shape, and measure 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 μm.

The mushroom grows in grassland habitats, especially wetter areas. Unlike P. cubensis, the fungus does not grow directly on dung; rather, it is a saprobic species that feeds off decaying grass roots. It is widely distributed in the temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in Europe, and has been reported occasionally in temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere as well. The earliest reliable history of P. semilanceata intoxication dates back to 1799 in London, and in the 1960s the mushroom was the first European species confirmed to contain psilocybin. The possession or sale of psilocybin mushrooms is illegal in many countries.

Taxonomy

A small conical cream-colored mushroom on a long, spindly stipe, amid long grass
A marble bust of a curly-haired boy wearing an edgeless conical cap with the rounded peak bending forward
The mushroom gets its common name from its resemblance to the Phrygian cap.

The species was first described by Elias Magnus Fries as Agaricus semilanceatus in his 1838 work Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici.[3] Paul Kummer transferred it to Psilocybe in 1871 when he raised many of Fries's sub-groupings of Agaricus to the level of genus.[4] Panaeolus semilanceatus, named by Jakob Emanuel Lange in both 1936 and 1939 publications, is a synonym.[5][6] According to the taxonomical database MycoBank, several taxa once considered varieties of P. semilanceata to be synonymous with the species now known as Psilocybe strictipes:[7] the caerulescens variety described by Pier Andrea Saccardo in 1887 (originally named Agaricus semilanceatus var. coerulescens by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in 1881),[8] the microspora variety described by Rolf Singer in 1969,[9] and the obtusata variety described by Marcel Bon in 1985.[10]

Several molecular studies published in the 2000s demonstrated that Psilocybe, as it was defined then, was polyphyletic.[11][12][13] The studies supported the idea of dividing the genus into two clades, one consisting of the bluing, hallucinogenic species in the family Hymenogastraceae, and the other the non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species in the family Strophariaceae. However, the generally accepted lectotype (a specimen later selected when the original author of a taxon name did not designate a type) of the genus as a whole was Psilocybe montana, which is a non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species. If the non-bluing, non-hallucinogenic species in the study were to be segregated, it would have left the hallucinogenic clade without a valid name. To resolve this dilemma, several mycologists proposed in a 2005 publication to conserve the name Psilocybe, with P. semilanceata as the type. As they explained, conserving the name Psilocybe in this way would prevent nomenclatural changes to a well-known group of fungi, many species of which are "linked to archaeology, anthropology, religion, alternate life styles, forensic science, law enforcement, laws and regulation".[14] Further, the name P. semilanceata had historically been accepted as the lectotype by many authors in the period 1938–68. The proposal to conserve the name Psilocybe, with P. semilanceata as the type was accepted unanimously by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi in 2009.[15]

The mushroom takes its common name from the Phrygian cap, also known as the "liberty cap", which it resembles;[16] P. semilanceata shares its common name with P. pelliculosa,[17] a species from which it is more or less indistinguishable in appearance.[18] The Latin word for Phrygian cap is pileus, nowadays the technical name for what is commonly known as the "cap" of a fungal fruit body. In the 18th century, Phrygian caps were placed on Liberty poles, which resemble the stipe of the mushroom. The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek psilos (ψιλός) 'smooth, bare' and Byzantine Greek kubê (κύβη) 'head'.[19][20] The specific epithet comes from Latin semi 'half, somewhat' and lanceata, from lanceolatus 'spear-shaped'.[21]

Description

A collection of brown mushrooms laid on a rock. The mushrooms' caps are small, conical, and variably rounded. Their stipes are long, spindly, and irregular.
A collection from Norway

The cap of P. semilanceata is 5–25 mm (0.20–0.98 in) in diameter and 6–22 mm (0.24–0.87 in) tall. It varies in shape from sharply conical to bell-shaped, often with a prominent papilla (a nipple-shaped structure), and does not change shape considerably as it ages. The cap margin is initially rolled inward but unrolls to become straight or even curled upwards in maturity. The cap is hygrophanous, meaning it assumes different colors depending on its state of hydration. When it is moist, the cap is ochraceous to pale brown to dark chestnut brown, but darker in the center, often with a greenish-blue tinge. When moist, radial grooves (striations) can be seen on the cap that correspond to the positions of the gills underneath. When the cap is dry, it becomes much paler, a light yellow-brown color.[2] Moist mushrooms have sticky surfaces that result from a thin gelatinous film called a pellicle.[22] This film becomes apparent if a piece of the cap is broken by bending it back and peeling away the piece. When the cap dries from exposure to the sun, the film turns whitish and is no longer peelable.[23]

On the underside of the mushroom's cap, there are between 15 and 27 individual narrow gills that are moderately crowded together, and they have a narrowly adnexed to almost free attachment to the stipe. Their color is initially pale brown, but becomes dark gray to purple-brown with a lighter edge as the spores mature. The slender yellowish-brown stipe is 4.5–14 cm (1.8–5.5 in) long by 1–3.5 mm (0.04–0.14 in) thick, and usually slightly thicker towards the base.[2] The mushroom has a thin cobweb-like partial veil that does not last long before disappearing; sometimes, the partial veil leaves an annular zone on the stipe that may be darkened by spores.[22] The flesh is thin and membrane-like, and roughly the same color as the surface tissue. It has a farinaceous (similar to freshly ground flour) odor and taste. All parts of the mushroom will stain a bluish color if handled or bruised, and it may naturally turn blue with age.[2]

Microscopic characteristics

In deposit, the spores are a deep reddish purple-brown color. The use of an optical microscope can reveal further details: the spores are oblong when seen in side view, and oblong to oval in frontal view, with dimensions of 10.5–15 by 6.5–8.5 μm. The basidia (spore bearing cells of the hymenium), are 20–31 by 5–9 μm, four-spored, and have clamps at their bases; there are no basidia found on the sterile gill edge. The cheilocystidia (cystidia on the gill edge) measure 15–30 by 4–7 μm, and are flask-shaped with long thin necks that are 1–3.5 μm wide. P. semilanceata does not have pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face). The cap cuticle is up to 90 μm thick, and is made of a tissue layer called an ixocutis—a gelatinized layer of hyphae lying parallel to the cap surface. The hyphae comprising the ixocutis are cylindrical, hyaline, and 1–3.5 μm wide. Immediately under the cap cuticle is the subpellis, made of hyphae that are 4–12 μm wide with yellowish-brown encrusted walls. There are clamp connections present in the hyphae of all tissues.[2]

Spore Print
Spores under microscope (x1000)
Microscopic characteristics

Other forms

The anamorphic form of P. semilanceata is an asexual stage in the fungus's life cycle involved in the development of mitotic diaspores (conidia). In culture, grown in a petri dish, the fungus forms a white to pale orange cottony or felt-like mat of mycelia. The conidia formed are straight to curved, measuring 2.0–8.0 by 1.1–2.0 μm, and may contain one to several small intracellular droplets.[24] Although little is known of the anamorphic stage of P. semilanceata beyond the confines of laboratory culture, in general, the morphology of the asexual structures may be used as classical characters in phylogenetic analyses to help understand the evolutionary relationships between related groups of fungi.[25]

Scottish mycologist Roy Watling described sequestrate (truffle-like) or secotioid versions of P. semilanceata he found growing in association with regular fruit bodies. These versions had elongated caps, 20–22 cm (7.9–8.7 in) long and 0.8–1 cm (0.3–0.4 in) wide at the base, with the inward curved margins closely hugging the stipe from the development of membranous flanges. Their gills were narrow, closely crowded together, and anastomosed (fused together in a vein-like network). The color of the gills was sepia with a brownish vinaceous (red wine-colored) cast, and a white margin. The stipes of the fruit bodies were 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long by 0.1–0.3 cm (0.04–0.12 in) thick, with about 2 cm (0.8 in) of stipe length covered by the extended cap. The thick-walled ellipsoid spores were 12.5–13.5 by 6.5–7 μm. Despite the significant differences in morphology, molecular analysis showed the secotioid version to be the same species as the typical morphotype.[26]

Similar species

Lookalikes include P. mexicana (left) and P. pelliculosa (right).

There are several other Psilocybe species that may be confused with P. semilanceata due to similarities in physical appearance.[27] P. strictipes is a slender grassland species that is differentiated macroscopically from P. semilanceata by the lack of a prominent papilla. P. mexicana, commonly known as the "Mexican liberty cap", is also similar in appearance, but is found in manure-rich soil in subtropical grasslands in Mexico. It has somewhat smaller spores than P. semilanceata, typically 8–9.9 by 5.5–7.7 μm.[28] Another lookalike species is P. samuiensis, found in Thailand, where it grows in well-manured clay-like soils or among paddy fields. This mushroom can be distinguished from P. semilanceata by its smaller cap, up to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter, and its rhomboid-shaped spores.[29] P. pelliculosa is physically similar to such a degree that it may be indistinguishable in the field. It differs from P. semilanceata by virtue of its smaller spores, measuring 9–13 by 5–7 μm.[18]

P. semilanceata has also been confused with the toxic muscarine-containing species Inocybe geophylla,[30] a whitish mushroom with a silky cap, yellowish-brown to pale grayish gills, and a dull yellowish-brown spore print.[31]

Ecology and habitat

Psilocybe semilanceata is a saprobic grassland species.

Psilocybe semilanceata fruits solitarily or in groups on rich[22][32] and acidic soil,[33][34] typically in grasslands,[35] such as meadows, pastures,[36] or lawns.[22] It is often found in pastures that have been fertilized with sheep or cow dung,[22] although it does not typically grow directly on the dung.[34]

P. semilanceata, like all others species of the genus Psilocybe, is a saprobic fungus,[37][38] meaning it obtains nutrients by breaking down organic matter. The mushroom is also associated with sedges in moist areas of fields,[22] and it is thought to live on the decaying root remains.[39][40] At least one study has demonstrated an association of P. semilanceata with the roots of the grasses Agrosiis tenuis, Poa annua, and the dicot Lolium perenne.[41]

Like some other grassland psilocybin mushroom species such as P. mexicana, P. tampanensis and Conocybe cyanopus, P. semilanceata may form sclerotia, a dormant form of the fungus, which affords it some protection from wildfires and other natural disasters.[35]

Laboratory tests have shown P. semilanceata to suppress the growth of the soil-borne water mold Phytophthora cinnamomi, a virulent plant pathogen that causes the disease root rot.[42] When grown in dual culture with other saprobic fungi isolated from the rhizosphere of grasses from its habitat, P. semilanceata significantly suppresses their growth. This antifungal activity, which can be traced at least partly to two phenolic compounds it secretes, helps it compete successfully with other fungal species in the intense competition for nutrients provided by decaying plant matter.[43] Using standard antimicrobial susceptibility tests, Psilocybe semilanceata was shown to strongly inhibit the growth of the human pathogen methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The source of the antimicrobial activity is unknown.[44]

Distribution

Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán, in his 1983 monograph on psilocybin mushrooms, considered Psilocybe semilanceata the world's most widespread psilocybin mushroom species, as it has been reported on 18 countries.[45] In Europe, P. semilanceata has a widespread distribution, and is found in Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Channel Islands, Czech republic, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,[46] the United Kingdom and Ukraine.[47] It is generally agreed that the species is native to Europe; Watling has demonstrated that there exists little difference between specimens collected from Spain and Scotland, at both the morphological and genetic level.[26]

The mushroom also has a widespread distribution in North America. In Canada it has been collected from British Columbia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Ontario and Quebec.[47] In the United States, it is most common in the Pacific Northwest, west of the Cascade Mountains, where it fruits abundantly in autumn and early winter; fruiting has also been reported to occur infrequently during spring months.[22] Charles Horton Peck reported the mushroom to occur in New York in the early 20th century, and consequently, much literature published since then has reported the species to be present in the eastern United States. Guzmán later examined Peck's herbarium specimen, and in his comprehensive 1983 monograph on Psilocybe, concluded that Peck had misidentified it with the species now known as Panaeolina foenisecii.[48] P. semilanceata is much less common in South America, where it has been recorded in Chile.[47] It is also known in Australia (where it may be an introduced species)[26] and New Zealand, where it grows in high-altitude grasslands.[49] In 2000, it was reported from Golaghat, in the Indian state of Assam.[50] In 2017, it was reported from Charsadda, in the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[51]

Psychoactive use

1, 2 & 3 in the figure are Psilocybe semilanceata, which Sowerby wrongly thought was the same as Stropharia semiglobata.

The first reliably documented report of Psilocybe semilanceata intoxication involved a British family in 1799, who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park. According to the chemist Augustus Everard Brande, the father and his four children experienced typical symptoms associated with ingestion, including pupil dilation, spontaneous laughter and delirium.[52] The identification of the species responsible was made possible by James Sowerby's 1803 book Coloured Figures of English Fungi or Mushrooms,[53] which included a description of the fungus, then known as Agaricus glutinosus (originally described by Moses Ashley Curtis in 1780). According to German mycologist Jochen Gartz, the description of the species is "fully compatible with current knowledge about Psilocybe semilanceata."[54]

In the early 1960s, the Swiss scientist Albert Hofmann—known for the synthesis of the psychedelic drug LSD—chemically analyzed P. semilanceata fruit bodies collected in Switzerland and France by the botanist Roger Heim. Using the technique of paper chromatography, Hofmann confirmed the presence of 0.25% (by weight) psilocybin in dried samples. Their 1963 publication was the first report of psilocybin in a European mushroom species; previously, it had been known only in Psilocybe species native to Mexico, Asia and North America.[33] This finding was confirmed in the late 1960s with specimens from Scotland and England,[55][56] Czechoslovakia (1973),[57] Germany (1977),[58] Norway (1978),[39] and Belgium and Finland (1984).[59][60] In 1965, forensic characterization of psilocybin-containing mushrooms seized from college students in British Columbia identified P. semilanceata[61]—the first recorded case of intentional recreational use of the mushroom in Canada.[62] The presence of the psilocybin analog baeocystin was confirmed in 1977.[58] Several studies published since then support the idea that the variability of psilocybin content in P. semilanceata is low, regardless of country of origin.[63][64]

Properties

O-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Psilocybin
3-[2-(methylammonio)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl hydrogen phosphate
Baeocystin
Phenyleth-2-amine
Phenethylamine

Several studies have quantified the amounts of hallucinogenic compounds found in the fruit bodies of Psilocybe semilanceata. In 1993, Gartz reported an average of 1% psilocybin (expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the fruit bodies), ranging from a minimum of 0.2% to a maximum of 2.37% making it one of the most potent species (but significantly less potent than panaeolus cyanescens).[65] In an earlier analysis, Tjakko Stijve and Thom Kuyper (1985) found a high concentration in a single specimen (1.7%) in addition to a relatively high concentration of baeocystin (0.36%).[66] Smaller specimens tend to have the highest percent concentrations of psilocybin, but the absolute amount is highest in larger mushrooms.[67] A Finnish study assayed psilocybin concentrations in old herbarium specimens, and concluded that although psilocybin concentration decreased linearly over time, it was relatively stable. They were able to detect the chemical in specimens that were 115 years old.[68] Michael Beug and Jeremy Bigwood, analyzing specimens from the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, reported psilocybin concentrations ranging from 0.62% to 1.28%, averaging 1.0 ±0.2%. They concluded that the species was one of the most potent, as well as the most constant in psilocybin levels.[69] In a 1996 publication, Paul Stamets defined a "potency rating scale" based on the total content of psychoactive compounds (including psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin) in 12 species of Psilocybe mushrooms. Although there are certain caveats with this technique—such as the erroneous assumption that these compounds contribute equally to psychoactive properties—it serves as a rough comparison of potency between species. Despite its small size, Psilocybe semilanceata is considered a "moderately active to extremely potent" hallucinogenic mushroom (meaning the combined percentage of psychoactive compounds is typically between 0.25% to greater than 2%),[22] and of the 12 mushrooms they compared, only 3 were more potent: P. azurescens, P. baeocystis, and P. bohemica.[70] however this data has become obsolete over the years as more potent cultivars have been discovered for numerous species, especially panaeolus cyanescens which holds the current world record for most potent mushrooms described in published research. According to Gartz (1995), P. semilanceata is Europe's most popular psychoactive species.[36]

Several reports have been published in the literature documenting the effects of consumption of P. semilanceata. Typical symptoms include visual distortions of color, depth and form, progressing to visual hallucinations. The effects are similar to the experience following consumption of LSD, although milder.[71] Common side effects of mushroom ingestion include pupil dilation, increased heart rate, unpleasant mood, and overresponsive reflexes. As is typical of the symptoms associated with psilocybin mushroom ingestion, "the effect on mood in particular is dependent on the subject's pre-exposure personality traits", and "identical doses of psilocybin may have widely differing effects in different individuals."[72] Although most cases of intoxication resolve without incident, there have been isolated cases with severe consequences, especially after higher dosages or persistent use. In one case reported in Poland in 1998, an 18-year-old man developed Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, arrhythmia, and suffered myocardial infarction after ingesting P. semilanceata frequently over the period of a month. The cardiac damage and myocardial infarction was suggested to be a result of either coronary vasoconstriction, or because of platelet hyperaggregation and occlusion of small coronary arteries.[73]

Danger of misidentification

One danger of attempting to consume hallucinogenic or other wild mushrooms, especially for novice mushroom hunters, is the possibility of misidentification with toxic species.[74] In one noted case, an otherwise healthy young Austrian man mistook the poisonous Cortinarius rubellus for P. semilanceata. As a result, he suffered end-stage kidney failure, and required a kidney transplant.[75] In another instance, a young man developed cardiac abnormalities similar to those seen in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, characterized by a sudden temporary weakening of the myocardium.[76] A polymerase chain reaction-based test to specifically identify P. semilanceata was reported by Polish scientists in 2007.[77] Poisonous Psathyrella species can easily be misidentified as liberty caps.

See also: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms varies worldwide. Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Class A (United Kingdom) or Schedule I (US) drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[78] The possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including P. semilanceata, is therefore prohibited by extension. Although many European countries remained open to the use and possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms after the US ban, starting in the 2000s (decade) there has been a tightening of laws and enforcements. In the Netherlands, where the drug was once routinely sold in licensed cannabis coffee shops and smart shops, laws were instituted in October 2008 to prohibit the possession or sale of psychedelic mushrooms—the final European country to do so.[79] They are legal in Jamaica and Brazil and decriminalised in Portugal. In the United States, the city of Denver, Colorado, voted in May 2019 to decriminalize the use and possession of psilocybin mushrooms.[80] In November 2020, voters passed Oregon Ballot Measure 109, making Oregon the first state to both decriminalize psilocybin and also legalize it for therapeutic use.[81] Ann Arbor, Michigan, and the county it resides in have decriminalized magic mushrooms. Possession, sale and use are now legal within the county. In 2021, the City Councils of Somerville, Northampton, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Seattle, Washington, voted for decriminalization.[82]

Sweden

The Riksdag added P. semilanceata to Narcotic Drugs Punishments Act under Swedish schedule I ("substances, plant materials and fungi which normally do not have medical use") as of 1 October 1997, published by Medical Products Agency (MPA) in regulation LVFS 1997:12 listed as Psilocybe semilanceata (toppslätskivling).[83]

See also

References

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  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Flora Agaricina Neerlandica. 3. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 1995. p. 45. ISBN 978-90-5410-616-6. 
  3. ↑ Fries EM (1838) (in la). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici: Seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum. Uppsala, Sweden: Typographia Academica. p. 231. https://books.google.com/books?id=sLQTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA231. 
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  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Psychotropic mycoflora of Washington, Idaho, Oregon, California and British Columbia". Mycologia 68 (6): 1267–72. 1976. doi:10.2307/3758763. PMID 1034879. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0068/006/1267.htm. Retrieved 6 January 2011. 
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  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Stamets (1996), pp. 142–45.
  23. ↑ Harris B. (2003). Growing Wild Mushrooms: A Complete Guide to Cultivating Edible and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms. Berkeley, California: Ronin Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-57951-066-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=eBO6kzpiBqUC&pg=PA83. 
  24. ↑ "Anamorphs in the Strophariaceae (Basidiomycota, Agaricales)". Botany 86 (6): 551–66. 2008. doi:10.1139/B08-036. Bibcode: 2008Botan..86..551W. 
  25. ↑ "The systematic relevance of conidiogenesis modes in the gilled Agaricales". Mycological Research 109 (5): 525–44. 2005. doi:10.1017/S0953756205002868. PMID 16018308. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "A sequestrate Psilocybe from Scotland". Botanical Journal of Scotland 55 (2): 245–57. 2003. doi:10.1080/03746600308685009. ISSN 1359-4869. 
  27. ↑ Gandy, Sam (2024-07-23). "A Guide to Identifying Liberty Caps (and Their Look-Alikes)" (in en-US). https://doubleblindmag.com/liberty-cap-look-alikes/. 
  28. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 129.
  29. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 140.
  30. ↑ Bresinsky and Besl (1989), pp. 115–16.
  31. ↑ Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Ottawa, Canada: Fitzhenry & Whiteside in cooperation with Agriculture Canada. 1985. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-88902-977-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=nhWbsGB7z4cC&pg=PA149. 
  32. ↑ Guzman (1983), p. 361.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Phytochimie – présence de la psilocybine dans une espèce européenne d'agaric, le Psilocybe semilanceata Fr." (in fr). Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences 257 (1): 10–12. 1963. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Gartz (1997), p. 21.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Stamets (1996), p. 24.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Gartz (1997), p. 18.
  37. ↑ Guzman (1983), p. 22.
  38. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 16.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Høiland K. (1978). "The genus Psilocybe in Norway". Norwegian Journal of Botany 25 (2): 111–22. 
  40. ↑ "Colonization by Psilocybe semilanceata of roots of grassland flora". Mycological Research 94 (1): 49–56. 1990. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)81263-X. 
  41. ↑ Keay, Susan M.; Brown, Averil E. (1990-01-01). "Colonization by Psilocybe semilanceata of roots of grassland flora". Mycological Research 94 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)81263-X. ISSN 0953-7562. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S095375620981263X. 
  42. ↑ Lucas, John, ed (1991). "Microbial suppression of Phytophthora cinnamomi". Phytophthora: Symposium of the British Mycological Society, the British Society for Plant Pathology, and the Society of Irish Plant Pathologists held at Trinity College, Dublin, September 1989. Cambridge, England: Published for the British Mycological Society by Cambridge University Press. p. 387. ISBN 978-0-521-40080-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=C2twp2II3QIC&pg=PA387. 
  43. ↑ "Interactions between Psilocybe semilanceata and fungi of its habitat". Mycological Research 93 (4): 554–56. 1989. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(89)80054-1. 
  44. ↑ "Screening of basidiomycetes for antimicrobial activities". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 78 (2): 129–39. 2000. doi:10.1023/A:1026552024021. PMID 11204765. 
  45. ↑ Guzman (1983), pp. 44–5.
  46. ↑ "Psilocybe semilanceata (Fries) Kumber (Strophariaceae): Türkiye için yeni bir halüsinojen mantar" (in tr). Bağbahçe Bilim Dergisi 3 (1): 34–40. 2016. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322276601. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 198–280. 1998. http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. Retrieved 12 January 2010. 
  48. ↑ Guzman (1983), pp.363–4.
  49. ↑ "The genus Psilocybe (Agaricales) in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Botany 33 (3): 379–88. 1995. doi:10.1080/0028825X.1995.10412964. Bibcode: 1995NZJB...33..379J. 
  50. ↑ "Agaricales of Nambar reserve forest, Golaghat, Assam, India". Advances in Plant Sciences 13 (2): 609–13. 2000. 
  51. ↑ Yaseen, T.; Shakeel, M.; Nawaz, G. (28 December 2017). "Morphological Study of some Mushroom species distributed in District Charsadda, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan". Sindh University Research Journal: Science Series 49 (4): 747––752. doi:10.26692/Surj/2017.12.52. 
  52. ↑ Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry and Natural History 3 (11): 41–44. PMID 30490162. PMC 5659401. https://books.google.com/books?id=EgEHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41. 
  53. ↑ Sowerby J. (1803). Coloured Figures of English Fungi or Mushrooms. 3. London: J. Davis. pp. 248–49. https://books.google.com/books?id=TRUWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT11. 
  54. ↑ Gartz (1997), p. 16.
  55. ↑ "Blueing in Conocybe, Psilocybe and a Stropharia species and the detection of psilocybin". Lloydia 30 (2): 149–157. 1967. 
  56. ↑ "Occurrence of psilocybin in sporophores of Psilocybe semilanceata". Transactions of the British Mycological Society 53 (2): 302–304. 1969. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(69)80066-5. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59351/0053/002/0302.htm. Retrieved 20 November 2010. 
  57. ↑ "Hallucinogene Pilze in der Tschechoslowakei" (in de). Česká Mykologie 27: 42–47. 1973. doi:10.33585/cmy.27109. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "Baeocystin in Psilocybe semilanceata". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 66 (1): 113–14. 1977. doi:10.1002/jps.2600660130. PMID 556766. Bibcode: 1977JPhmS..66..113R. 
  59. ↑ "Qualitative and quantitative determination of hallucinogenic components of Psilocybe mushrooms by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography". Journal of Chromatography 312: 467–72. 1984. doi:10.1016/s0021-9673(01)92800-6. PMID 6543215. 
  60. ↑ "Psilocybin in Finnish Psilocybe semilanceata". Planta Medica 50 (3): 277–78. 1984. doi:10.1055/s-2007-969703. PMID 17340315. Bibcode: 1984PlMed..50..277J. 
  61. ↑ "Botanical and chemical characterization of a forensic mushroom specimen of the genus Psilocybe". Journal of the Forensic Science Society 6 (4): 192–201. 1966. doi:10.1016/S0015-7368(66)70336-3. 
  62. ↑ Metzner R. (2005). Sacred Mushroom of Visions: Teonanácatl: A Sourcebook on the Psilocybin Mushroom (2nd ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Park Street Press. ISBN 978-1-59477-044-9. 
  63. ↑ Gartz (1997), p. 26.
  64. ↑ For example:
    • "The determination of psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms by HPLC utilizing a dual reagent acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection system". Journal of Forensic Sciences 51 (1): 45–51. 2006. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2005.00033.x. PMID 16423222. 
    • "Determination of psilocin and psilocybin using flow injection analysis with acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2′-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection respectively". Talanta 67 (2): 354–59. 2005. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2004.11.038. PMID 18970175. 
    • "The occurrence of tryptamine derivatives in Psilocybe semilanceata". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C 43 (7–8): 511–14. 1988. doi:10.1515/znc-1988-7-806. ISSN 0939-5075. 
  65. ↑ Gartz J. (1994). "New aspects of the occurrence, chemistry and cultivation of European hallucinogenic mushrooms". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 8: 107–23. http://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/GARTZ%20Jochen/gartz3.htm. 
  66. ↑ "Occurrence of psilocybin in various higher fungi from several European countries". Planta Medica 51 (5): 385–87. 1985. doi:10.1055/s-2007-969526. PMID 17342589. Bibcode: 1985PlMed..51..385S. 
  67. ↑ Gartz J. (1986). "Quantitative Bestimmung der Indolderivate von Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Kumm." (in de). Biochemie und Physiologie der Pflanzen 181 (2): 117–24. doi:10.1016/s0015-3796(86)80079-8. 
  68. ↑ "The occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in Finnish fungi". Journal of Natural Products 50 (4): 741–44. 1987. doi:10.1021/np50052a030. PMID 3430170. Bibcode: 1987JNAtP..50..741O. 
  69. ↑ "Psilocybin and psilocin levels in twenty species from seven genera of wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A.". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5 (3): 271–85. 1982. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90013-7. PMID 7201053. 
  70. ↑ Stamets (1996), pp. 39–41.
  71. ↑ "Abuse of indigenous psilocybin mushrooms: a new fashion and some psychiatric complications". British Journal of Psychiatry 132 (6): 602–604. 1978. doi:10.1192/bjp.132.6.602. PMID 566144. 
  72. ↑ "Clinical toxicology of 'magic mushroom' ingestion". Postgraduate Medical Journal 57 (67): 543–45. 1981. doi:10.1136/pgmj.57.671.543. PMID 7199140. 
  73. ↑ "Psilocybin mushroom (Psilocybe semilanceata) intoxication with myocardial infarction". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 36 (1–2): 47–49. 1998. doi:10.3109/15563659809162584. PMID 9541042. 
  74. ↑ Phillips, Roger (2010). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-55407-651-2. 
  75. ↑ "Magic mushrooms: hopes for a 'cheap high' resulting in end-stage renal failure". Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation 11 (11): 2324–27. 1996. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.ndt.a027160. PMID 8941602. 
  76. ↑ "Apical regional wall motion abnormalities reminiscent to Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy following consumption of psychoactive fungi". International Journal of Cardiology 134 (1): e39–e41. 2009. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.12.064. PMID 18378018. 
  77. ↑ "Halucynogenne grzyby—lysiczki (Psilocybe). Czesc II. Identyfikacja Psilocybe semilanceata przy pomocy techniki PCR" (in pl). Archiwum Medycyny Sądowej I Kryminolologii 57 (3): 285–88. 2007. PMID 17907620. 
  78. ↑ "List of psychotropic substances under international control". International Narcotics Control Board. August 2003. http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf. 
  79. ↑ Marley G. (2010). Chanterelle Dreams, Amanita Nightmares: The Love, Lore, and Mystique of Mushrooms. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-60358-214-8. 
  80. ↑ Honig, Esther (9 May 2019). "In Close Vote, Denver Becomes First U.S. City To Decriminalize Psychedelic Mushrooms". https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/05/09/721660053/in-close-vote-denver-becomes-first-u-s-city-to-decriminalize-psychedelic-mushroo. 
  81. ↑ Naftulin, Julia. "Oregon has become the first state to legalize 'magic' mushrooms for therapeutic use. Here's what that means." (in en-US). https://www.businessinsider.com/oregon-first-ever-state-to-legalize-psilocybin-for-therapeutic-use-2020-11. 
  82. ↑ Adlin, Ben (4 October 2021). "Seattle Becomes Largest U.S. City To Decriminalize Psychedelics" (in en-US). https://www.marijuanamoment.net/seattle-becomes-largest-u-s-city-to-decriminalize-psychedelics/. 
  83. ↑ "Läkemedelsverkets föreskrifter (LVFS 1997:12) om förteckningar över narkotika". https://lakemedelsverket.se/upload/lvfs/konsoliderade/LVFS_1997_12_konsoliderad_tom_2011_2.pdf. 

Cited texts

  • Guzmán G. (1983). The genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Nova Hedwigia Beihefte. 74. Berlin: J. Cramer. ISBN 978-3-7682-5474-8. 
  • A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Fungi: a Handbook for Pharmacists, Doctors, and Biologists. London, UK: Manson Publishing Ltd.. 1989. ISBN 978-0-7234-1576-3. 
  • Stamets P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-839-7. 
  • Gartz J. (1997). Magic Mushrooms Around the World. Los Angeles, California: LIS Publications. ISBN 978-0-9653399-0-2. 
Short description: Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

"Magic mushroom" redirects here. For other uses, see Magic mushroom (disambiguation).
Psilocybe semilanceata

Psilocybin mushroom[lower-alpha 1] is a type of hallucinogenic mushroom and a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which is metabolised into the psychedelic compound psilocin following ingestion.[2] Rather than referring to one single mushroom species, the term "psilocybin mushroom" refers to a broad group of fungi found across several genera.[3] Other compounds such as baeocystin, norbaeocystin, aeruginascin, and β-carbolines may modulate effects. The most potent species are members of genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.[2]

Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs.[2] While psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically in pre-Columbian Mexico for religious and divinatory purposes, their historical use elsewhere was rare and is often exaggerated.[4] Such practices were suppressed after European colonization.

Modern Western interest began in the mid-20th century with figures like R. Gordon Wasson and Timothy Leary popularizing their study and use. Legal status varies widely, with some U.S. states decriminalizing or allowing therapeutic use, and international treaties generally regulate only the active compounds, not the mushrooms themselves. Research has increasingly focused on therapeutic potential for depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders. Recent scientific literature has also expanded interest in the taxonomy, ecology, and neurobiology of psilocybin-containing fungi, not only their psychoactive properties.[5][6]

Natural occurrence

See also: Biology:List of psilocybin mushroom species
Indoor cultivation of Psilocybe cubensis
Non-Psilocybe species of psilocybin mushroom include Pluteus salicinus (left), Gymnopilus luteoviridis (center), and Panaeolus cinctulus, formerly called Panaeolus subbalteatus (right)

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1).[7][8] Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms[9]

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[10] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[11] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[7] P. cubensis is the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[12] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[10] In 2023, two new Psilocybe species (Hymenogastraceae), P. ingeli and P. maluti, were described from southern Africa.[13][14]


Psilocybin-containing mushrooms occupy a variety of ecological niches depending on the species and genus. Some species are commonly associated with decomposing wood, grasslands, forest soils, mossy environments, or animal dung.[15][16]

Scientists also classify these fungi using both visible mushroom traits and newer DNA-based methods, which has helped improve identification and distinguish psychoactive species from similar-looking non-psychoactive or potentially toxic mushrooms.[17]

Ecologically, these fungi are generally saprotrophs, meaning they obtain nutrients by breaking down dead organic material in their environments. This helps explain why many species are found on decaying wood, plant litter, rich soils, or dung-based substrates.[18].[19] Habitat also differs by genus. Species of Panaeolus are especially associated with dung-rich habitats and grasslands, while many Pluteus and Gymnopilus species are more often linked to decaying wood and woody debris.[20]' Recent phylogenomic research has also increased scientific interest in the possible ecological role of psilocybin itself. One proposed idea is that psilocybin may be involved in fungal interactions with insects, although researchers have also noted that direct empirical evidence for this remains limited.[21] Geographic records are still incomplete in many regions, and recent studies have emphasized that global biodiversity data for psychedelic fungi remain uneven. This means the currently documented distribution of psilocybin-containing mushrooms may still underestimate their full ecological range.[16][22]

Composition

Active psilocybin mushroom constituents
Phosphorylated Dephosphorylated HTR?
Norbaeocystin (4-PO-T) 4-Hydroxytryptamine (4-HT) No
Baeocystin (4-PO-NMT) Norpsilocin (4-HO-NMT) No
Psilocybin (4-PO-DMT) Psilocin (4-HO-DMT) Yes
Aeruginascin (4-PO-TMT) 4-HO-TMT No
Notes: (1) The phosphorylated constituents are or are thought to be prodrugs of the dephosphorylated constituents. (2) The head-twitch response (HTR) is a behavioral proxy of psychedelic-like effects in rodents. Refs: [2][23][24][25]

Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[26] Its principal component is psilocybin,[27] which is converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effects.[28][29] Besides psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present, which might result in an entourage effect and modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[2][26] Animal studies suggest that the effects of pure psilocybin or psilocin and psilocybin mushrooms may be different and support the possibility of such an entourage effect with psilocybin mushrooms.[2][30][31] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[26]

Certain mushrooms are found to produce β-carbolines, such as harmine, harmane, tetrahydroharmine (THH), and harmaline, which inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids, and have other actions.[32][2] They occur in different genera, such as Psilocybe,[32][33] Cyclocybe,[34] and Hygrophorus.[35] Harmine, harmane, norharmane, and a range of other β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.[32] β-Carbolines in psilocybin mushrooms may inhibit the metabolism of psilocybin and other constituents and thereby potentiate their effects.[32]

Uses

Psilocybin-containing mushrooms may be used in whole form, for example consumption of dried or fresh mushrooms, or may be turned into extracts or food products such as mushroom edibles or mushroom tea. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms and products, as well as products containing related compounds like 4-AcO-DMT, may be purchased at smart shops like psychedelic mushroom stores in some jurisdictions. Another related psilocybin-containing fungus is magic truffles, which are not technically mushrooms themselves but are the sclerotia or mycelium of psilocybin-containing mushrooms.

Dosing

A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms

The dose of psilocybin-containing mushrooms depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species.[36][2][37] Psilocybin content is typically around 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight of the mushroom, with a range of 0.03% to 1.78%.[2][38][39][40][41] Psilocin is also often present in the mushrooms, with a range of 0% to 0.59%, and can be on par with or an order of magnitude lower than psilocybin levels.[38][2] Psilocybe cubensis, the most popular species, has been reported to contain 0.63% psilocybin and 0.6% psilocin, or about 1.2% of psilocybin and psilocin combined.[38] However, there is significant variation in different P. cubensis strains.[42][43] The 'Penis Envy' strain of P. cubensis is considered to be more potent than other strains.[42] Psilocybin levels appear to be highest in P. cyanescens and/or P. azurescens.[2][38][44]

Recreational doses of psilocybin mushrooms are typically between 1.0 and 3.5–5.0 g of dry mushrooms and 10 to 50 g of fresh mushrooms.[36][39] This corresponds to a dose of psilocybin of about 10 to 50 mg.[39] Usual doses of the common species P. cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose and above 5.0 g is considered a heavy dose.[45] A 5.0 g dose of dried mushroom is often referred to as a "heroic dose".[46] In terms of psilocybin dosing, subthreshold or microdoses are <2.5 mg, low doses are 5 to 10 mg, the intermediate or "good effect" dose is 20 mg, and high or ego-dissolution doses are 30 to 40 mg.[47][36] A 20 mg dose of psilocybin is equivalent to about 100 μg LSD or about 500 mg mescaline.[47] With regard to psilocybin and psilocin equivalence, psilocin is about 1.4-fold more potent than psilocybin (i.e., 1.4 mg psilocybin equals about 1.0 mg psilocin), which is the same difference as the molecular weights of the two compounds.[38][48][49]

Microdosing has become a popular technique for many users, which involves taking <1.0 g of dried mushrooms for an experience that is not as intense or powerful, but recreationally enjoyable, or fully non-hallucinogenic, and potentially alleviating for symptoms of depression.[50] A microdose of psilocybin mushrooms is about 10% of a recreational dose, and may be 0.1 to 0.3 g of dry mushrooms, taken up to three times per week.[51]

"Lemon tek" or "lemon tekking" is a method sometimes used by recreational psilocybin users.[52][53][54] It involves soaking psilocybin-containing mushrooms in citric acid-containing lemon juice to supposedly convert their psilocybin content into psilocin prior to administration.[52][53][54] This is claimed to hasten their onset, cause a sharper and more intense peak, and shorten their duration.[52][53][54]

Effects

Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated "mushroom" the least harmful drug overall and for users, and the only drug that did not get any scores for harm on others.[55]

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects.[56] Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.[57] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[58] The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dose, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[59]

Sensory effects

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[60] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[60] Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[61]

Emotional effects

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent upon set and setting.[60] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[60] A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'[62] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose.[63]

Recent research has also increased interest in the possible therapeutic effects of psilocybin in controlled settings, especially for depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders, though current findings are still being studied and should be interpreted carefully.[64]

Contraindications

Adverse effects

Toxicity

Psilocybe mexicana

The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, the psilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins; psilocybin and psilocin.[65] The median lethal dose, also known as "LD50", of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.[66]

From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult to overdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than 1.2 kg of dried Psilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.[40]

Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acute serotonin syndrome.[67] A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.[68]

Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.[67] However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.[69]

A more common public health concern than overdose is accidental misidentification, since some psychoactive mushroom species can resemble non-psychoactive or toxic mushrooms.[70]

Interactions

Pharmacology

History

Early

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

The use of psilocybin mushrooms by humans in religious ceremonies dating back thousands of years is contested.[71] Despite popular narratives portraying psychedelics as ancient, widespread, and primarily used by shamans for therapeutic healing, careful anthropological and historical research shows their traditional use was limited, recent, and culturally specific, with modern Western interpretations largely shaped by idealization, tourism, and ideological agendas.[71] Reliable evidence shows that psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically in pre-Columbian Mexico but were otherwise rare, with most claims of ancient widespread use being exaggerated or misinterpreted.[71]

The Tassili Mushroom Figure was discovered in Tassili, Algeria has been argued to provide evidence of an early psilocybin-containing mushroom cult.[72] 6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been argued to be Psilocybe hispanica, a hallucinogenic species native to the area. Some scholars have also interpreted archaeological artifacts from Mexico and the so-called Mayan "mushroom stones" of Guatemala as evidence of ritual and ceremonial use of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica.[73]: 11 

The hallucinogenic[74] species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.[75] Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.[76] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.[77]

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[78] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[79]

A 2024 research paper identified Psilocybe maluti as a new described species from the Free State Province of South Africa and Lesotho in Southern Africa.[80] Anecdotal reports suggests the mushroom was used spiritually and traditionally by Basotho healers, marking it the only documented instance of traditional hallucinogenic mushroom use in Africa and the earliest recorded reference to such practices in Sub-Saharan Africa.[80]

Modern

Psilocybe allenii

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[81]

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[82] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe,[83] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[84][85]

Sticker art and Latrinalia related to the culture of Psilocybin mushrooms, Sydney, 2025

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism.[86] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[87]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. Psilocybin retreats such as MycoMeditations also exist in countries like Jamaica, where psilocybin mushrooms are legal.[79] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[88] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Modern scientific and cultural interest in psilocybin mushrooms has continued to grow, especially because of renewed psychiatric and neuroscientific research in the 21st century[89]

Society and culture

Main article: Biology:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms


The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.

After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.[90] In 2022 Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,[91] though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.[92][93] Other jurisdictions in the United States have decriminalized psilocybin mushrooms.

Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.[94] This is because only fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.[95] A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.[96]

United Nations

Main article: Medicine:Convention on Psychotropic Substances
Article 32 makes an exception for psilocybin mushroom and other wild psychotropic plants, to protect use in religious rituals in case such plants themselves were in the future added to Schedule I.

Internationally, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin, are Schedule I drugs under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing them are not subject to international control:[97]

The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention... Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin.

Research

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders.[98][99] In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[100]

More recent review articles have expanded scientific interest in psilocybin-related research, especially in psychiatry, neuroscience, and psychopharmacology. Researchers have focused on possible applications involving depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders, while also emphasizing the need for continued controlled study.[101][102]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Also known as psilocybin-containing mushrooms, magic mushrooms, or shrooms.[1]

References

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  70. ↑ Strauss, Dominique; Ghosh, Soumya; Murray, Zurika; Gryzenhout, Marieka (2022-05-23). "An Overview on the Taxonomy, Phylogenetics and Ecology of the Psychedelic Genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus and Gymnopilus". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 5. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.813998. ISSN 2624-893X. Bibcode: 2022FrFGC...5.3998S. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 "The ancient psychedelics myth: 'People tell tourists the stories they think are interesting for them'" (in en-GB). The Guardian. 2025-05-01. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/may/01/the-ancient-psychedelics-myth-people-tell-tourists-the-stories-they-think-are-interesting-for-them. 
  72. ↑ "The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 BP)". Integration. Zeitschrift für geistbewegende Pflanzen und Kultur. 2/3: 69–65. 1992. https://www.academia.edu/79946409. 
  73. ↑ Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-89815-839-7. 
  74. ↑ Abuse, National Institute on Drug (April 22, 2019). "Hallucinogens DrugFacts". https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/hallucinogens. 
  75. ↑ F.J. Carod-Artal (January 1, 2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurología (English Edition) 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010. PMID 21893367. 
  76. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 7.
  77. ↑ Hofmann A. (1980). "The Mexican relatives of LSD". LSD: My Problem Child. New York City: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–71. ISBN 978-0-07-029325-0. 
  78. ↑ Stamets (1996), p. 11.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Guzmán G. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview". Economic Botany 62 (3): 404–412. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8. Bibcode: 2008EcBot..62..404G. 
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 van der Merwe, B.; Rockefeller, A.; Kilian, A.; Clark, C.; Sethathi, M.; Moult, T.; Jacobs, K. (2024-09-02). "A description of two novel Psilocybe species from southern Africa and some notes on African traditional hallucinogenic mushroom use" (in en). Mycologia 116 (5): 821–834. doi:10.1080/00275514.2024.2363137. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 38953774. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.2024.2363137. 
  81. ↑ Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Natural History 3 (11): 41–44. PMID 30490162. PMC 5659401. https://books.google.com/books?id=EgEHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA41. Retrieved October 19, 2016. 
  82. ↑ Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (May 13): 100–120. https://books.google.com/books?id=Jj8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA100. Retrieved October 19, 2016. 
  83. ↑ Heim R. (1957). "Notes préliminaires sur les agarics hallucinogènes du Mexique" (in fr). Revue de Mycologie 22 (1): 58–79. 
  84. ↑ "Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin" (in de). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 14 (11): 397–399. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02160424. PMID 13609599. 
  85. ↑ "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" (in de). Experientia 14 (3): 107–109. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. 
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  87. ↑ Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-06-165593-7. https://archive.org/details/harvardpsychedel00latt/page/37. 
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  90. ↑ "Oregon Measure 109, Psilocybin Mushroom Services Program Initiative (2020)". Nov 3, 2020. https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020). 
  91. ↑ Brown, Jennifer (10 November 2022). "Colorado becomes second state to legalize "magic mushrooms"" (in en-US). http://coloradosun.com/2022/11/09/proposition-122-colorado-results-psilocybin-mushrooms-2/. 
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  100. ↑ "FDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". November 22, 2019. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191122005452/en/FDA-grants-Breakthrough-Therapy-Designation-to-Usona-Institutes-psilocybin-program-for-major-depressive-disorder. 
  101. ↑ Goel, Dev B; Zilate, Sarju (2022-10-12). "Potential Therapeutic Effects of Psilocybin: A Systematic Review". Cureus 14 (10). doi:10.7759/cureus.30214. ISSN 2168-8184. PMID 36381758. 
  102. ↑ Omidian, Hossein; Omidian, Alborz (2025-04-09). "The Emergence of Psilocybin in Psychiatry and Neuroscience". Pharmaceuticals 18 (4): 555. doi:10.3390/ph18040555. ISSN 1424-8247. PMID 40283990. 

Further reading

  • Allen, J.W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN 978-1-58214-026-1. 
  • Estrada, A. (1981). Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants. Ross Erikson. ISBN 978-0-915520-32-9. https://archive.org/details/marasabinaherl00estr. 
  • Haze, Virginia & Dr. K. Mandrake, PhD. The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. ISBN 978-1-937866-28-0. www.greencandypress.com.
  • Högberg, O. (2003) (in sv). Flugsvampen och människan. Carlssons. ISBN 978-91-7203-555-3. 
  • Kuhn, C.; Swartzwelder, S; Wilson, W. (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32493-8. https://archive.org/details/buzzedstraightfa0000kuhn. 
  • Letcher, A. (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22770-9. 
  • McKenna, T. (1993). Food of the Gods. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-553-37130-7. 
  • Nicholas, L.G.; Ogame, K. (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 978-0-932551-71-9. 
  • Stamets, P. (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-175-7. 
  • Stamets, P.; Chilton, J.S. (1983). The Mushroom Cultivator. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 978-0-9610798-0-2. 
  • Stamets, P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-839-7. 
  • Wasson, G.R. (1980). The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-068443-0. 

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