Chemistry:Bupropion

From HandWiki
Short description: Substituted cathinone medication mainly used for depression and smoking cessation
Bupropion
Skeletal formula of bupropion
Ball-and-stick model of the (S) isomer of the bupropion molecule
1 : 1 mixture (racemate)
Clinical data
Pronunciation/bjuːˈproʊpiɒn/
bew-PROH-pee-on
Trade namesWellbutrin, Zyban, others
Other namesAmfebutamone; 3-Chloro-N-tert-butyl-β-keto-α-methylphenethylamine;
3-Chloro-N-tert-butyl-β-ketoamphetamine;
Bupropion hydrochloride[1]
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa695033
License data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		By mouth
Drug classNDRI antidepressants
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
BioavailabilityUnknown[11]
Protein bindingBupropion: 84%[12]
Hydroxybupropion: 77%[12]
Threohydrobupropion: 42%[12]
MetabolismLiver, intestines[11]
Metabolites• Hydroxybupropion
• Threohydrobupropion
• Erythrohydrobupropion
• Others
Elimination half-lifeBupropion: 11–21 h[13][11]
Hydroxybupropion: 20 h[11]
Threohydrobupropion: 37 h[11]
Erythrohydrobupropion: 33 h[11]
ExcretionUrine: 87% (0.5% unchanged)[11]
Feces: 10%[11]
Identifiers
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC13H18ClNO
Molar mass239.74 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  (verify)

Bupropion, sold under the brand name Wellbutrin among others, is an atypical antidepressant primarily used to treat major depressive disorder and to support smoking cessation.[14][15] It is also popular as an add-on medication in the cases of "incomplete response" to the first-line selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant.[15][16] Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction,[15] it is not associated with weight gain[15] and sleepiness,[17] and it is more effective than SSRIs at improving symptoms of hypersomnia and fatigue.[18] Bupropion, particularly the immediate release formulation, carries a higher risk of seizure than many other antidepressants, hence caution is recommended in patients with a history of seizure disorder.[19]

Common adverse effects of bupropion with the greatest difference from placebo are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating.[20][failed verification] Raised blood pressure is notable.[21] Rare but serious side effects include seizure,[20] liver toxicity,[22] psychosis,[23] and risk of overdose.[24] Bupropion use during pregnancy may be associated with increased odds of congenital heart defects.[25]

Bupropion acts as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a nicotinic receptor antagonist.[11] However, its effects on dopamine are weak.[26][27][28][29][30] Chemically, bupropion is an aminoketone that belongs to the class of substituted cathinones and more generally that of substituted amphetamines and substituted phenethylamines.[1][31]

Bupropion was invented by Nariman Mehta, who worked at Burroughs Wellcome, in 1969.[32] It was first approved for medical use in the United States in 1985.[33] Bupropion was originally called by the generic name amfebutamone, before being renamed in 2000.[34] In 2021, it was the eighteenth most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 29 million prescriptions.[35][36] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[37]

Medical uses

Wellbutrin XL

Depression

The evidence overall supports the efficacy of bupropion over placebo for the treatment of depression.[38][15][39] Some peer reviewed studies suggest the quality of evidence is low.[39][15] Some meta-analyses report that bupropion has an at-most small effect size for depression.[40][41][39][42] One meta-analysis reported a large effect size.[15] However, there were methodological limitations with this meta-analysis, including using a subset of only five trials for the effect size calculation, substantial variability in effect sizes between the selected trials—which led the authors to state that their findings in this area should be interpreted with "extreme caution"—and general lack of inclusion of unpublished trials in the meta-analysis.[15] Unpublished trials are more likely to be negative in findings,[43][44] and other meta-analyses have included unpublished trials.[40][41][39][42] Evidence suggests that the efficacy of bupropion for depression is similar to that of other antidepressants.[40][41][15]

Over the autumn and winter months, bupropion prevents development of depression in those who have recurring seasonal affective disorder: 15% of participants on bupropion experienced a major depressive episode vs. 27% of those on placebo.[45] Bupropion also improves depression in bipolar disorder, with the efficacy and risk of affective switch being similar to other antidepressants.[46]

Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: for instance, unlike the majority of antidepressants, it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction, and the occurrence of sexual side effects is not different from placebo.[15][47] Bupropion treatment is not associated with weight gain; on the contrary, the majority of studies observed significant weight loss in bupropion-treated participants.[15] Bupropion treatment also is not associated with the sleepiness that may be produced by other antidepressants.[17] Bupropion is more effective than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) at improving symptoms of hypersomnia and fatigue in depressed patients.[18] Bupropion is effective in the treatment of anxious depression and, contrary to common belief, does not exacerbate anxiety in this context.[48][49] The effectiveness of bupropion for anxious depression is equivalent to that of SSRIs in the case of depression with low or moderate anxiety, whereas SSRIs show a modest effectiveness advantage in terms of response rates for depression with high anxiety.[48]

The addition of bupropion to a prescribed SSRI is a common strategy when people do not respond to the SSRI,[16] and it is supported by clinical trials;[15] however, it appears to be inferior to the addition of atypical antipsychotic aripiprazole.[50][further explanation needed]

Smoking cessation

Prescribed as an aid for smoking cessation, bupropion reduces the severity of craving for nicotine and withdrawal symptoms[51][52][53] such as depressed mood, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and increased appetite.[54] Initially, bupropion slows the weight gain that often occurs in the first weeks after quitting smoking. With time, however, this effect becomes negligible.[54]

The bupropion treatment course lasts for seven to twelve weeks, with the patient halting the use of tobacco about ten days into the course.[54][7] After the course, the effectiveness of bupropion for maintaining abstinence from smoking declines over time, from 37% of tobacco abstinence at 3 months to 20% at one year.[55] It is unclear whether extending bupropion treatment helps to prevent relapse of smoking.[56]

Overall, six months after the therapy, bupropion increases the likelihood of quitting smoking by approximately 1.6 fold as compared to placebo. In this respect, bupropion is as effective as nicotine replacement therapy but inferior to varenicline. Combining bupropion and nicotine replacement therapy does not improve the quitting rate.[57]

In children and adolescents, the use of bupropion for smoking cessation does not appear to offer any significant benefits.[58] The evidence for its use to aid smoking cessation in pregnant women is insufficient.[59]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

In the United States, the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not an approved indication of bupropion, and it is not mentioned in the current (2019) guideline on the ADHD treatment from the American Academy of Pediatrics.[60] Systematic reviews of bupropion for the treatment of ADHD in both adults and children note that bupropion may be effective for ADHD but warn that this conclusion has to be interpreted with caution, because clinical trials were of low quality due to small sizes and risk of bias.[28][61][62][63] Similarly to atomoxetine, bupropion has a delayed onset of action for ADHD, and several weeks of treatment are required for therapeutic effects.[28][64] This is in contrast to stimulants, such as amphetamine and methylphenidate, which have an immediate onset of effect in the condition.[64]

Sexual dysfunction

Bupropion is less likely than other antidepressants to cause sexual dysfunction.[65] A range of studies indicate that bupropion not only produces fewer sexual side effects than other antidepressants but can actually help to alleviate sexual dysfunction[66] including sexual dysfunction induced by SSRI antidepressants.[67] There have also been small studies suggesting that bupropion or a bupropion/trazodone combination may improve some measures of sexual function in women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) and are not depressed.[68] According to an expert consensus recommendation from the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health, bupropion can be considered as an off-label treatment for HSDD despite limited safety and efficacy data.[69] Likewise, a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of bupropion for sexual desire disorder in women reported that although data were limited, bupropion appeared to be dose-dependently effective for the condition.[70]

Obesity

Bupropion, when used for treating obesity over a period of 6 to 12 months, results in an average weight loss of 2.7 kg (5.9 lbs) over placebo.[71] This is not much different from the weight loss produced by several other weight-loss medications such as sibutramine or orlistat.[71] The combination drug naltrexone/bupropion has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of obesity.[72][73]

Other uses

Bupropion is not effective in the treatment of cocaine dependence,[74] but it is showing promise in reducing drug use in light methamphetamine users.[75] Based on studies indicating that bupropion lowers the level of the inflammatory mediator TNF-alpha, there have been suggestions that it might be useful in treating inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, and other autoimmune conditions, but very little clinical evidence is available.[76][77][78] Bupropion is not effective in treating chronic low back pain.[79]

Available forms

Bupropion is available as an oral tablet in a number of different formulations.[80] It is formulated mostly as the hydrochloride salt but also to a lesser extent as the hydrobromide salt.[80] The available forms of bupropion hydrochloride include IR (instant-release) tablets (50, 75, 100 mg), SR (sustained-release) tablets (50, 100, 150, 200 mg), and XL (extended-release) tablets (150, 300, 450 mg).[80] The IR formulation is generally administered thrice daily, the SR formultion twice daily, and the XL formulation once daily. The only marketed form of bupropion hydrobromide is Aplenzin, an extended-release oral tablet taken once daily (174, 348, 522 mg, equivalent to 150, 300, and 450 mg of bupropion hydrochloride).[80] In addition to single-drug formulations, bupropion is formulated in combinations including naltrexone/bupropion (Contrave; 8 mg/90 mg extended-release tablets) for obesity[80] and dextromethorphan/bupropion (Auvelity; 45 mg/105 mg tablets) for depression.[81][82]

Contraindications

The drug label advises that bupropion should not be prescribed to individuals with epilepsy or other conditions that lower the seizure threshold, such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, benzodiazepine or alcohol withdrawal. It should be avoided in individuals who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). The label recommends that caution should be exercised when treating people with liver damage, severe kidney disease, and severe hypertension, and in children, adolescents and young adults due to the increased risk of suicidal ideation.[7]

Side effects

The common adverse effects of bupropion with the greatest difference from placebo are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating.[20] Bupropion has the highest incidence of insomnia of all second-generation antidepressants, apart from desvenlafaxine.[83] It is also associated with about 20% increased risk of headache.[84]

Bupropion raises blood pressure in some people. One study showed an average rise of 6 mm Hg in systolic blood pressure in 10% of patients.[21] The prescribing information notes that hypertension, sometimes severe, is observed in some people taking bupropion, both with and without pre-existing hypertension.[20] Safety of bupropion in people with cardiovascular conditions and its general cardiovascular safety profile remain unclear due to the lack of data.[85][86]

Seizure is a rare but serious adverse effect of bupropion. It is strongly dose-dependent: for the immediate release preparation, the seizure incidence is 0.4% at the dose 300–450 mg per day; the incidence climbs almost ten-fold for the higher than recommended dose of 600 mg.[20] For comparison, the incidence of unprovoked seizure in the general population is 0.07 to 0.09%, and the risk of seizure for a variety of other antidepressants is generally between 0 and 0.5% at the recommended doses.[87]

Cases of liver toxicity leading to death or liver transplantation have been reported for bupropion. It is considered to be one of several antidepressants with greater risk of hepatotoxicity.[22]

The prescribing information warns about bupropion triggering an angle-closure glaucoma attack.[7] On the other hand, bupropion may decrease the risk of development of open angle glaucoma.[88]

Bupropion use by mothers in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with 23% increase of the odds in congenital heart defects in their children.[25]

Bupropion has rarely been associated with instances of Stevens–Johnson syndrome.[89][90]

Psychiatric

The FDA requires all antidepressants, including bupropion, to carry a boxed warning stating that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicide in people younger than 25. This warning is based on a statistical analysis conducted by the FDA which found a 2-fold increase in suicidal thought and behavior in children and adolescents, and 1.5-fold increase in the 18–24 age group.[91] For this analysis the FDA combined the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants in order to obtain statistically significant results. Considered in isolation, bupropion was not statistically different from placebo.[91]

Bupropion prescribed for smoking cessation results in 25% increase of the risk of psychiatric side effects, in particular, anxiety (about 40% increase) and insomnia (about 80% increase). The evidence is insufficient to determine whether bupropion is associated with suicides or suicidal behavior.[52]

In rare cases, bupropion-induced psychosis may develop. It is associated with higher doses of bupropion; many cases described are at higher than recommended doses. Concurrent antipsychotic medication appears to be protective.[23] In most cases the psychotic symptoms are eliminated by reducing the dose, ceasing treatment or adding antipsychotic medication.[7][23]

Although studies are lacking, a handful of case reports suggest that abrupt discontinuation of bupropion may cause antidepressant discontinuation syndrome.[92]

Overdose

Bupropion is considered moderately dangerous in overdose.[93][94] According to an analysis of US National Poison Data System, adjusted for the number of prescriptions, bupropion and venlafaxine are the two new generation antidepressants (that is excluding tricyclic antidepressants) that result in the highest mortality and morbidity.[24] For significant overdoses, seizures have been reported in about a third of all cases; other serious effects include hallucinations, loss of consciousness, and abnormal heart rhythms. When bupropion was one of several kinds of pills taken in an overdose, fever, muscle rigidity, muscle damage, hypertension or hypotension, stupor, coma, and respiratory failure have been reported. While most people recover, some people have died, having had multiple uncontrolled seizures and myocardial infarction.[7]

Interactions

Since bupropion is metabolized to hydroxybupropion by the enzyme CYP2B6, drug interactions with CYP2B6 inhibitors are possible: this includes such medications as paroxetine, sertraline, norfluoxetine (active metabolite of fluoxetine), diazepam, clopidogrel, and orphenadrine. The expected result is the increase of bupropion and decrease of hydroxybupropion blood concentration. The reverse effect (decrease of bupropion and increase of hydroxybupropion) can be expected with CYP2B6 inducers such as carbamazepine, clotrimazole, rifampicin, ritonavir, St John's wort, and phenobarbital.[95] Indeed, carbamazepine decreases exposure to bupropion by 90% and increases exposure to hydroxybupropion by 94%.[96] Ritonavir, lopinavir/ritonavir, and efavirenz have been shown to decrease levels of bupropion and/or its metabolites.[97] Ticlopidine and clopidogrel, both potent CYP2B6 inhibitors, have been found to considerably increase bupropion levels as well as decrease levels of its metabolite hydroxybupropion.[97]

Bupropion and its metabolites are inhibitors of CYP2D6, with hydroxybupropion responsible for most of the inhibition. Additionally, bupropion and its metabolites may decrease expression of CYP2D6 in the liver. The end effect is a significant slowing of the clearance of other drugs metabolized by this enzyme.[11] For instance, bupropion has been found to increase area-under-the-curve of desipramine, a CYP2D6 substrate, by 5-fold.[97] Bupropion has also been found to increase levels of atomoxetine by 5.1-fold, while decreasing the exposure to its main metabolite by 1.5-fold.[98] As another example, the ratio of dextromethorphan (a drug that is mainly metabolized by CYP2D6) to its major metabolite dextrorphan increased approximately 35-fold when it was administered to people being treated with 300 mg/day bupropion.[95] When people on bupropion are given MDMA, about 30% increase of exposure to both drugs is observed, with enhanced mood but decreased heart rate effects of MDMA.[99][100] Interactions with other CYP2D6 substrates, such as metoprolol, imipramine, nortriptyline,[100] venlafaxine,[95] and nebivolol[11] have also been reported. However, in a notable exception, bupropion does not seem to affect the concentrations of CYP2D6 substrates fluoxetine and paroxetine.[95][101]

Bupropion lowers the seizure threshold, and therefore can potentially interact with other medications that also lower it, such as antipsychotics, tricyclic antidepressants, theophylline, and systemic corticosteroids.[7] The prescribing information recommends minimizing the use of alcohol, since in rare cases bupropion reduces alcohol tolerance.[7]

Caution should be observed when combining bupropion with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), as it may result in hypertensive crisis.[102]

Pharmacology

Pharmacology of bupropion and its metabolites.
  Bupropion R,R-
Hydroxy
bupropion 		S,S-
Hydroxy
bupropion 		Threo-
hydro
bupropion 		Erythro-
hydro
bupropion
Exposure and half-life
AUC relative
to bupropion[103][104] 		1 23.8 0.6 11.2 2.5
Half-life[13] 11 h 19 h 15 h 31 h 22 h
Inhibition IC50 (μM) in human cells, unless noted otherwise. (Smaller is more potent)
DAT, uptake[105] 0.66 inactive 0.63 47 (rat)[106] no data
NET, uptake[105] 1.85 9.9 0.24 16 (rat)[106] no data
SERT, uptake[105] inactive inactive inactive 67 (rat)[106] no data
α3β4 nicotinic[105] 1.8 6.5 11 14 (rat)[107] no data
α4β2 nicotinic[108] 12 31 3.3 no data no data
α1β1γδ nicotinic[108] 7.9 7.6 28 no data no data
5-HT3A[109][110] 87 (mouse) no data no data no data no data

Pharmacodynamics

The mechanism of action of bupropion in the treatment of depression and for other indications is unclear.[11] However, it is thought to be related to the fact that bupropion is a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) and antagonist of several nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.[11] It is uncertain whether bupropion is a norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent.[11] Pharmacological actions of bupropion, to a substantial degree, are due to its active metabolites hydroxybupropion, threo-hydrobupropion, and erythro-hydrobupropion that are present in the blood plasma at comparable or much higher levels.[11] In fact, bupropion could accurately be conceptualized as a prodrug of these metabolites.[11] Overall action of these metabolites, and particularly one enantiomer S,S-hydroxybupropion, is also characterized by inhibition of norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake and nicotinic antagonism (see the chart on the right).[11] Bupropion has no meaningful direct activity at a variety of receptors, including α- and β-adrenergic, dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.[17]

The occupancy of dopamine transporter (DAT) by bupropion (300 mg/day) and its metabolites in the human brain as measured by several positron emission tomography (PET) studies is approximately 20%, with a mean occupancy range of about 14 to 26%.[26][27][28] For comparison, the NDRI methylphenidate at therapeutic doses is thought to occupy greater than 50% of DAT sites.[28] In accordance with its low DAT occupancy, no measurable dopamine release in the human brain was detected with bupropion (one 150 mg dose) in a PET study.[26][27][111] Bupropion has also been shown to increase striatal VMAT2, though it is unknown if this effect is more pronounced than other DRIs.[112] These findings raise questions about the role of dopamine reuptake inhibition in the pharmacology of bupropion, and suggest that other actions may be responsible for its therapeutic effects.[26][28][27] More research is needed in this area.[26] No data are available on occupancy of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) by bupropion and its metabolites.[26] However, due to the increased exposure of hydroxybupropion over bupropion itself, which has higher affinity for the NET than the DAT,[105] bupropion's overall pharmacological profile in humans may end up making it effectively more of a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor than a dopamine reuptake inhibitor.[29][30] Accordingly, the clinical effects of bupropion are more consistent with noradrenergic activity than with dopaminergic actions.[29][30]

Bupropion has been found to have a mixture of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory activity through modulation of the immune system.[113][114][115][116][117][118][119] One such mechanism underlying these effects may be reduced levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα).[113][119][120] The catecholaminergic actions of bupropion may be involved in its immunomodulatory effects.[120]

Pharmacokinetics

Principal pathways of bupropion metabolism

After oral administration, bupropion is rapidly and completely absorbed reaching the peak blood plasma concentration after 1.5 hours (tmax). Sustained release (SR) and extended release (XL) formulations have been designed to slow down absorption resulting in tmax of 3 hours and 5 hours, respectively.[95] Absolute bioavailability of bupropion is unknown but is presumed to be low, at 5–20%, due to the first-pass metabolism. As for the relative bioavailability of the formulations, XL formulation has lower bioavailability (68%) compared to SR formulation and immediate release bupropion.[11]

Bupropion is metabolized in the body by a variety of pathways. The oxidative pathways are by cytochrome P450 isoenzymes CYP2B6 leading to R,R- and S,S-hydroxybupropion and, to a lesser degree, CYP2C19 leading to 4'-hydroxybupropion. The reductive pathways are by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the liver and AKR7A2/AKR7A3 in the intestine leading to threo-hydrobupropion and by yet unknown enzyme leading to erythro-hydrobupropion.[11]

The metabolism of bupropion is highly variable: the effective doses of bupropion received by persons who ingest the same amount of the drug may differ by as much as 5.5 times (with a half-life of 12–30 hours), while the effective doses of hydroxybupropion may differ by as much as 7.5 times (with a half-life of 15–25 hours).[7][121][122] Based on this, some researchers have advocated monitoring of the blood level of bupropion and hydroxybupropion.[123]

Chemistry

Bupropion is an aminoketone that belongs to the class of substituted cathinones and the more general class of substituted phenethylamines.[1][31] The clinically used bupropion is racemic, that is a mixture of two enantiomers: S-bupropion and R-bupropion. Although the optical isomers on bupropion can be separated, they rapidly racemize under physiological conditions.[11][124]

There have been reported cases of false-positive urine amphetamine tests in persons taking bupropion.[125][126][127]

Synthesis

It is synthesized in two chemical steps starting from 3'-chloro-propiophenone. The alpha position adjacent to the ketone is first brominated followed by nucleophilic displacement of the resulting alpha-bromoketone with t-butylamine and treated with hydrochloric acid to give bupropion as the hydrochloride salt in 75–85% overall yield.[32][128]

Bupropion synthesis diagram
3'-chloro-propiophenone
3'-chloro-2-bromopropiophenone
bupropion hydrochloride
This diagram shows the synthesis of bupropion via 3'-chloro-propiophenone.

History

Comparison of steady-state plasma bupropion levels with bupropion IR 100 mg t.i.d. (3x/day), bupropion SR 150 mg b.i.d. (2x/day), and bupropion XL 300 mg q.d. (1x/day)[129][95]

Bupropion was invented by Nariman Mehta of Burroughs Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline) in 1969, and the US patent for it was granted in 1974.[32] It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an antidepressant on 30 December 1985, and marketed under the name Wellbutrin.[33][130] However, a significant incidence of seizures at the originally recommended dosage (400–600 mg/day) caused the withdrawal of the drug in 1986. Subsequently, the risk of seizures was found to be highly dose-dependent, and bupropion was re-introduced to the market in 1989 with a lower maximum recommended daily dose of 450 mg/day.[131]

In 1996, the FDA approved a sustained-release formulation of alcohol-resistant bupropion called Wellbutrin SR, intended to be taken twice a day (as compared with three times a day for immediate-release Wellbutrin).[132] In 2003, the FDA approved another sustained-release formulation called Wellbutrin XL, intended for once-daily dosing.[133] Wellbutrin SR and XL are available in generic form in the United States and Canada. In 1997, bupropion was approved by the FDA for use as a smoking cessation aid under the name Zyban.[134][132] In 2006, Wellbutrin XL was similarly approved as a treatment for seasonal affective disorder.[135][136]

In October 2007, two providers of consumer information on nutritional products and supplements, ConsumerLab.com and The People's Pharmacy, released the results of comparative tests of different brands of bupropion.[137] The People's Pharmacy received multiple reports of increased side effects and decreased efficacy of generic bupropion, which prompted it to ask ConsumerLab.com to test the products in question. The tests showed that "one of a few generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, sold as Budeprion XL 300 mg, didn't perform the same as the brand-name pill in the lab."[138] The FDA investigated these complaints and concluded that Budeprion XL is equivalent to Wellbutrin XL in regard to bioavailability of bupropion and its main active metabolite hydroxybupropion. The FDA also said that coincidental natural mood variation is the most likely explanation for the apparent worsening of depression after the switch from Wellbutrin XL to Budeprion XL.[139] On 3 October 2012, however, the FDA reversed this opinion, announcing that "Budeprion XL 300 mg fails to demonstrate therapeutic equivalence to Wellbutrin XL 300 mg."[140] The FDA did not test the bioequivalence of any of the other generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, but requested that the four manufacturers submit data on this question to the FDA by March 2013.[140] (As of October 2013) the FDA has made determinations on the formulations from some manufacturers not being bioequivalent.[140]

In April 2008, the FDA approved a formulation of bupropion as a hydrobromide salt instead of a hydrochloride salt, to be sold under the name Aplenzin by Sanofi-Aventis.[141][142][9]

In 2009, the FDA issued a health advisory warning that the prescription of bupropion for smoking cessation has been associated with reports about unusual behavior changes, agitation and hostility. Some people, according to the advisory, have become depressed or have had their depression worsen, have had thoughts about suicide or dying, or have attempted suicide.[143] This advisory was based on a review of anti-smoking products that identified 75 reports of "suicidal adverse events" for bupropion over ten years.[144] Based on the results of follow-up trials this warning was removed in 2016.[145]

In 2012, the US Justice Department announced that GlaxoSmithKline had agreed to plead guilty and pay a $3 billion fine, in part for promoting the unapproved use of Wellbutrin for weight loss and sexual dysfunction.[146]

In 2017, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended suspending a number of nationally approved medicines due to misrepresentation of bioequivalence study data by Micro Therapeutic Research Labs in India.[147] The products recommended for suspension included several 300 mg modified-release bupropion tablets.[148]

Following EMA's call for an industry-wide review of medicines for the possible presence of nitrosamines,[149] GlaxoSmithKline paused batch release and distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets in November 2022. In July 2023, EMA raised the acceptable daily intake of nitrosamines impurities, leading GlaxoSmithKline to announce that distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets would resume "across the EU and Europe" by the end of 2023.[150]

Society and culture

Recreational use

While bupropion demonstrates some potential for misuse, this potential is less than of other commonly used stimulants, being limited by features of its pharmacology.[151] Case reports describe misuse of bupropion as producing a "high" similar to cocaine or amphetamine usage but with less intensity. Bupropion misuse is uncommon.[151] There have been a number of anecdotal and case-study reports of bupropion abuse, but the bulk of evidence indicates that the subjective effects of bupropion when taken orally are markedly different from those of addictive stimulants such as cocaine or amphetamine.[152] However, bupropion, by non-conventional routes of administration like injection or insufflation, has been reported to be misused in the United States and Canada, notably in prisons.[153][154][155][156]

Legal status

In Russia bupropion is banned as a narcotic drug, yet not per se but rather as a derivative of methcathinone.[157] In Australia, France, and the UK, smoking cessation is the only licensed use of bupropion, and no generics are marketed.[158][159][160]

Brand names

Brand names include Wellbutrin, Aplenzin, Budeprion, Buproban, Forfivo, Voxra, Zyban, Bupron, Bupisure, Bupep, Smoquite, Elontril, and Buxon.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Bupropion". PubChem. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information. 28 July 2018. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/444. 
  2. ↑ "Bupropion Use During Pregnancy". https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/bupropion.html. 
  3. ↑ "TGA eBS - Product and Consumer Medicine Information Licence". https://www.ebs.tga.gov.au/ebs/picmi/picmirepository.nsf/pdf?OpenAgent&id=CP-2013-PI-01138-1. 
  4. ↑ "Wellbutrin Product information". 25 April 2012. https://health-products.canada.ca/dpd-bdpp/info.do?lang=en&code=61183. 
  5. ↑ "Zyban Product information". 25 April 2012. https://health-products.canada.ca/dpd-bdpp/info.do?lang=en&code=61860. 
  6. ↑ "Zyban 150 mg prolonged release tablets - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". 21 April 2022. https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/3827/smpc. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 "Wellbutrin SR - bupropion hydrochloride tablet, film coated". 5 November 2019. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=cbc8c074-f080-4489-a5ae-207b5fadeba3. 
  8. ↑ "Wellbutrin XL- bupropion hydrochloride tablet, extended release". 4 March 2022. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=a435da9d-f6e8-4ddc-897d-8cd2bf777b21. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Aplenzin - bupropion hydrobromide tablet, extended release". 2 June 2020. https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=6494d2d9-0ce4-4126-b1c7-49684395942b. 
  10. ↑ "Bupropion hydrochloride EPAR". 17 September 2018. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/referrals/bupropion-hydrochloride. 
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 "Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic of bupropion: integrative overview of relevant clinical and forensic aspects". Drug Metabolism Reviews 51 (3): 293–313. August 2019. doi:10.1080/03602532.2019.1620763. PMID 31124380. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "Zyban 150 mg prolonged release film-coated tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)". electronic Medicines Compendium. GlaxoSmithKline UK. 1 August 2013. http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/2948/SPC/Zyban+150+mg+prolonged+release+film-coated+tablets/. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Chiral Plasma Pharmacokinetics and Urinary Excretion of Bupropion and Metabolites in Healthy Volunteers". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 358 (2): 230–238. August 2016. doi:10.1124/jpet.116.232876. PMID 27255113. 
  14. ↑ Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference (37th ed.). Pharmaceutical Press. 2011. p. 402. ISBN 9780853699828. 
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 "Bupropion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effectiveness as an antidepressant". Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology 6 (2): 99–144. April 2016. doi:10.1177/2045125316629071. PMID 27141292. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Clinicians' Views on Treatment-Resistant Depression: 2016 Survey Reports". The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 24 (10): 913–917. October 2016. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2016.05.010. PMID 27591914. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Bupropion: a review of its use in the management of major depressive disorder". Drugs 68 (5): 653–689. 2008. doi:10.2165/00003495-200868050-00011. PMID 18370448. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Symptoms of fatigue and sleepiness in major depressive disorder". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67 (Suppl 6): 9–15. 2006. PMID 16848671. 
  19. ↑ "Epileptic Seizures Under Antidepressive Drug Treatment: Systematic Review". Pharmacopsychiatry 51 (4): 121–135. July 2018. doi:10.1055/s-0043-117962. PMID 28850959. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 "Wellbutrin XL® Prescribing Information". GlaxoSmithKline. June 2006. http://us.gsk.com/products/assets/us_wellbutrinXL.pdf. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Blood pressure changes associated with medication treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66 (2): 253–259. February 2005. doi:10.4088/jcp.v66n0215. PMID 15705013. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Antidepressant-induced liver injury: a review for clinicians". The American Journal of Psychiatry 171 (4): 404–415. April 2014. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13050709. PMID 24362450. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 "Bupropion-induced psychosis: folklore or a fact? A systematic review of the literature". General Hospital Psychiatry 33 (6): 612–617. November–December 2011. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.07.001. PMID 21872337. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Morbidity and Mortality Associated With Medications Used in the Treatment of Depression: An Analysis of Cases Reported to U.S. Poison Control Centers, 2000-2014". The American Journal of Psychiatry 174 (5): 438–450. May 2017. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16050523. PMID 28135844. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Considering the Risk for Congenital Heart Defects of Antidepressant Classes and Individual Antidepressants". Drug Safety 44 (3): 291–312. March 2021. doi:10.1007/s40264-020-01027-x. PMID 33354752. https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12212569530001831. Retrieved 17 May 2022. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants". The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 22 (8): 561–628. October 2021. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_6FD14CC75A02.P001/REF.pdf. Retrieved 10 April 2022. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 "Bupropion and bupropion analogs as treatments for CNS disorders". Emerging Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse. Advances in Pharmacology. 69. Academic Press. 2014. pp. 177–216. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00005-6. ISBN 9780124201187. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 "Bupropion for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2017 (10): CD009504. October 2017. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009504.pub2. PMID 28965364. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Other Antidepressants: Bupropion, Mirtazapine, and Trazodone". The American Psychiatric Association Publishing Textbook of Mood Disorders, Second Edition. American Psychiatric Pub. 16 June 2022. pp. 365–374. ISBN 978-1-61537-331-4. OCLC 1249799493. https://books.google.com/books?id=VAJ8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA365. Retrieved 27 August 2022. 
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  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Wellbutrin approval package". 30 December 1985. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/pre96/018644Orig1s000rev.pdf. 
  34. ↑ "International nonproprietary names for pharmaceutical substances (INN) : proposed international nonproprietary names : list 83". WHO Drug Information 14 (2). 2000. 
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  36. ↑ "Bupropion - Drug Usage Statistics". https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Bupropion. 
  37. ↑ The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2023. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02. 
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  45. ↑ "Second-generation antidepressants for preventing seasonal affective disorder in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 (4): CD011268. March 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011268.pub3. PMID 30883669. 
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  47. ↑ "Antidepressant-Associated Sexual Dysfunction: A Potentially Avoidable Therapeutic Challenge". Primary Psychiatry 10 (1): 55–61. 2003. http://www.primarypsychiatry.com/aspx/articledetail.aspx?articleid=1362. Retrieved 21 March 2013. 
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  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Antidepressants for smoking cessation". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2023 (5): CD000031. May 2023. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000031.pub6. PMID 37230961. 
  53. ↑ "Effectiveness of smoking cessation therapies: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Public Health 6: 300. December 2006. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-6-300. PMID 17156479. 
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  56. ↑ "Relapse prevention interventions for smoking cessation". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019 (10). October 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003999.pub6. PMID 31684681. 
  57. ↑ "Interventions for Tobacco Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Persons: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force". JAMA 325 (3): 280–298. January 2021. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.23541. PMID 33464342. 
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  60. ↑ "Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents". Pediatrics 144 (4): e20192528. October 2019. doi:10.1542/peds.2019-2528. PMID 31570648. 
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  115. ↑ "Revisiting bupropion anti-inflammatory action: involvement of the TLR2/TLR4 and JAK2/STAT3". Inflammopharmacology 29 (4): 1101–1109. August 2021. doi:10.1007/s10787-021-00829-4. PMID 34218389. 
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  117. ↑ "Bupropion for interferon-alpha-induced depression in patients with hepatitis C viral infection: an open-label study". Psychiatry Investig 12 (1): 142–5. January 2015. doi:10.4306/pi.2015.12.1.142. PMID 25670957. 
  118. ↑ "Bupropion reduces the inflammatory response and intestinal injury due to ischemia-reperfusion". Transplant Proc 45 (6): 2502–5. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2013.04.010. PMID 23953570. 
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 "Bupropion monotherapy alters neurotrophic and inflammatory markers in patients of major depressive disorder". Pharmacol Biochem Behav 200: 173073. January 2021. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173073. PMID 33186562. 
  120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 "A new chapter opens in anti-inflammatory treatments: the antidepressant bupropion lowers production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma in mice". Int Immunopharmacol 6 (6): 903–7. June 2006. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2005.12.007. PMID 16644475. https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/handle/icict/2741. Retrieved 25 October 2023. 
  121. ↑ Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. 2010. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8. [page needed]
  122. ↑ "Pharmacogenetic determinants of interindividual variability in bupropion hydroxylation by cytochrome P450 2B6 in human liver microsomes". Pharmacogenetics 14 (4): 225–238. April 2004. doi:10.1097/00008571-200404000-00002. PMID 15083067. 
  123. ↑ "Should bupropion dosage be adjusted based upon therapeutic drug monitoring?". Psychopharmacology Bulletin 27 (4): 637–643. 1991. PMID 1813908. 
  124. ↑ "Synthesis and evaluation of the antidepressant activity of the enantiomers of bupropion". Chirality 5 (7): 495–500. 1993. doi:10.1002/chir.530050704. PMID 8240925. 
  125. ↑ "Amphetamine positive toxicology screen secondary to bupropion". Depression and Anxiety 12 (1): 53–54. 2000. doi:10.1002/1520-6394(2000)12:1<53::AID-DA8>3.0.CO;2-4. PMID 10999247. 
  126. ↑ "Bupropion metabolites produce false-positive urine amphetamine results". Clinical Chemistry 41 (6 Pt 1): 955–956. June 1995. doi:10.1093/clinchem/41.6.955. PMID 7768026. 
  127. ↑ "Frequency of false positive amphetamine screens due to bupropion using the Syva EMIT II immunoassay". Journal of Medical Toxicology 7 (2): 105–108. June 2011. doi:10.1007/s13181-010-0131-5. PMID 21191682. 
  128. ↑ "A Short, One-Pot Synthesis of Bupropion (Zyban, Wellbutrin)". Journal of Chemical Education 77 (11): 1479. 2000. doi:10.1021/ed077p1479. Bibcode: 2000JChEd..77.1479P. 
  129. ↑ "15 years of clinical experience with bupropion HCl: from bupropion to bupropion SR to bupropion XL". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 7 (3): 106–113. 2005. doi:10.4088/pcc.v07n0305. PMID 16027765. 
  130. ↑ "Wellbutrin entry in the Orange Book". U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/ob/docs/obdetail.cfm?Appl_No=018644&TABLE1=OB_Rx. 
  131. ↑ "Bupropion (Wellbutrin)". eMedExpert.com. 31 March 2008. http://www.emedexpert.com/facts/bupropion-facts.shtml. 
  132. ↑ 132.0 132.1 "Bupropion helps people with schizophrenia quit smoking". National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Findings 20 (5). April 2006. http://drugabuse.gov/NIDA_notes/NNvol20N5/Bupropion.html. Retrieved 27 May 2013. 
  133. ↑ "Drug Approval Package: Wellbutrin XL (Bupropion HCI) NDA #021515". 22 April 2005. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2003/021515_Wellbutrin.cfm. 
  134. ↑ "Drug Approval Package: Zyban NDA# 020711". 8 August 2003. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/97/020711_zyban_toc.cfm. 
  135. ↑ "FDA approval letter". 6 December 2006. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2006/021515s010,021515s018LTR.pdf. 
  136. ↑ "Seasonal affective disorder drug Wellbutrin XL wins approval". CNN. 14 June 2006. http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/DI/00069.html. 
  137. ↑ "Generic drug equality questioned". 12 October 2007. http://www.peoplespharmacy.com/archives/generic_drug_problems/generic_drug_equality_questioned.php. 
  138. ↑ "Report questions generic antidepressant". NBC News. 12 October 2007. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21142869. 
  139. ↑ "Review of therapeutic equivalence: generic bupropion XL 300 mg and Wellbutrin XL 300 mg". https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco/CDER/ucm153270.htm. 
  140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 140.2 "Budeprion XL 300 mg not therapeutically equivalent to Wellbutrin XL 300 mg". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 3 October 2012. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/update-bupropion-hydrochloride-extended-release-300-mg-bioequivalence-studies.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  141. ↑ "FDA Approvals: Advair, Relistor, Aplenzin". Medscape. 8 May 2008. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/574187. 
  142. ↑ "Drug Approval Package: Aplenzin (Bupropion Hydrobromide) NDA 22108". 24 December 1999. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2008/022108s000TOC.cfm. 
  143. ↑ "Public Health Advisory: FDA requires new boxed warnings for the smoking cessation drugs Chantix and Zyban". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 1 July 2009. https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/PublicHealthAdvisories/ucm169988.htm. 
  144. ↑ "The smoking cessation aids varenicline (marketed as Chantix) and bupropion (marketed as Zyban and generics) suicidal ideation and behavior". Drug Safety Newsletter 2 (1): 1–4. 2009. https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/DrugSafetyNewsletter/UCM107318.pdf. Retrieved 16 December 2019. 
  145. ↑ "Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products - Chantix (varenicline) and Zyban (bupropion)". Drug Safety Communication – Mental Health Side Effects Revised. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 16 December 2016. https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm533517.htm. 
  146. ↑ "Glaxo agrees to pay $3 billion in fraud settlement". The New York Times. 2 July 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/business/glaxosmithkline-agrees-to-pay-3-billion-in-fraud-settlement.html. 
  147. ↑ Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) (24 March 2017). "EMA recommends suspension of medicines due to unreliable studies from Micro Therapeutic Research Labs". European Medicines Agency. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-suspension-medicines-due-unreliable-studies-micro-therapeutic-research-labs. 
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  150. ↑ Lipanovic, David (6 September 2023). "Bupropion to be made available in the UK again from December 2023, says manufacturer" (in en-US). https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/bupropion-to-be-made-available-in-the-uk-again-from-december-2023-says-manufacturer. 
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  153. ↑ Antidepressant Wellbutrin becomes 'poor man's cocaine' on Toronto streets Global News 18 September 2013.
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