Biology:Octopamine

From HandWiki
Short description: Group of stereoisomers
Octopamine
Octopamin.svg
Ball-and-stick model of the octopamine molecule
Clinical data
Other namesOCT, Norsympathol, Norsynephrine, para-Octopamine, beta-Hydroxytyramine, para-hydroxy-phenyl-ethanolamine, α-(Aminomethyl)-4 hydroxybenzenemethanol, 1-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-aminoethanol
Routes of
administration		Oral
ATC code
Physiology data
Source tissuesinvertebrate nervous systems; trace amine in vertebrates
Target tissuessystem-wide in invertebrates
ReceptorsTAAR1 (mammals)
OctαR, OctβR, TyrR (invertebrates), Oct-TyrR
AgonistsFormamidines (amitraz (AMZ) and chlordimeform (CDM))
Antagonistsepinastine (3-amino-9, 13b-dihydro-1H-dibenz(c,f)imidazo(1,5a)azepine hydrochloride)
Precursortyramine
Biosynthesistyramine β-hydroxylase; dopamine β-hydroxylase
Metabolismp-hydroxymandelic acid;[1][2] N-acetyltransferases; phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability99.42 %
Metabolismp-hydroxymandelic acid;[1][2] N-acetyltransferases; phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
Elimination half-life15 minutes in insects. Between 76 and 175 minutes in humans
ExcretionUp to 93% of ingested octopamine is eliminated via the urinary route within 24 hours[1]
Identifiers
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC8H11NO2
Molar mass153.181 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
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Octopamine (molecular formula C8H11NO2; also known as OA, and also norsynephrine, para-octopamine and others) is an organic chemical closely related to norepinephrine, and synthesized biologically by a homologous pathway. Octopamine is often considered the major "fight-or-flight" neurohormone of invertebrates. Its name is derived from the fact that it was first identified in the salivary glands of the octopus.

In many types of invertebrates octopamine is an important neurotransmitter and hormone. In protostomes—arthropods, molluscs, and several types of worms—it substitutes for norephinephrine and performs functions apparently similar to those of norepinephrine in mammals, functions that have been described as mobilizing the body and nervous system for action. In mammals octopamine is found only in trace amounts, and no biological function has been solidly established for it. It is also found naturally in numerous plants, including bitter orange.[4][5] Octopamine has been sold under trade names such as Epirenor, Norden, and Norfen for use as a sympathomimetic drug, available by prescription.

Functions

Cellular effects

Octopamine exerts its effects by binding to and activating receptors located on the surface of cells. These receptors have mainly been studied in insects, where they can be divided into distinct types:

  1. OctαR (alpha-adrenergic-like), are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic alpha-1 receptors in mammals. There are multiple subtypes of the OctαR receptor. For example, the kissing bug (Rhodnius prolixus) has Octα1-R, Octα2R.[6]
  2. OctβR (beta-adrenergic-like), are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic beta receptors in mammals. There are multiple subtypes of the OctβR receptor. For example, the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) has DmOctβ1R, DmOctβ2R, and DmOctβ3R.[7]
  3. OAMB. The diversity of this receptor is relatively unknown. The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) has two distinct isoforms which are functionally distinct: OambK3 and OambAS.[8]
  4. TyrR (mixed octopamine/tyramine receptors), which are structurally and functionally similar to noradrenergic alpha-2 receptors in mammals.[9] Receptors in the TyrR class, however, are generally more strongly activated by tyramine than by octopamine.[9]

Phylogenetic studies claim that in ancient bilaterians such as Platynereis dumerilii there is a co-existence of norepinephrine, tyramine and octopamine receptor signaling. However, due to partial overlapping in their signalling functionality tyramine and octopamine receptors have been lost in vertebrates.[10]

In vertebrates no octopamine-specific receptors have been identified. Octopamine binds weakly to receptors for norepinephrine and epinephrine, but it is not clear whether this has any functional significance. It binds more strongly to trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), especially TAAR1.[9]

Invertebrates

Octopamine was first discovered by Italian scientist Vittorio Erspamer in 1948[11] in the salivary glands of the octopus and has since been found to act as a neurotransmitter, neurohormone and neuromodulator in invertebrates. Although Erspamer discovered its natural occurrence and named it, octopamine had actually existed for many years as a pharmaceutical product.[12] It is widely used in energy-demanding behaviors by all insects, crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, crayfish), and spiders. Such behaviors include modulating muscle tension,[13] flying,[14] ovulation and egg-laying,[15][16][17][18][19][20] and jumping.[21][22]

In non-insect invertebrates

In lobsters, octopamine seems to direct and coordinate neurohormones to some extent in the central nervous system, and it was observed that injecting octopamine into a lobster and crayfish resulted in limb and abdomen extension.[23]

In the nematode, octopamine is found in high concentrations in adults, decreasing egg-laying and pharyngeal pumping behaviors with an antagonistic effect to serotonin.[24]

Octopaminergic nerves in the mollusc may be present in the heart, with high concentrations in the nervous system.[25]

In larvae of the oriental armyworm, octopamine is immunologically beneficial, increasing survival rates in high-density populations.[26]

In non-Drosophila insects

In insects, octopamine is released by a select number of neurons, but acts broadly throughout the central brain, on all sense organs, and on several non-neuronal tissues.[27][28] In the thoracic ganglia, octopamine is primarily released by DUM (dorsal unpaired median) and VUM (ventral unpaired median) neurons, which release octopamine onto neural, muscular, and peripheral targets.[29][30] These neurons are important for mediating energy-demanding motor behaviors, such as escape-induced jumping and flight. For example, the locust DUMeti neuron releases octopamine onto the extensor tibia muscle to increase muscle tension and increase relaxation rate. These actions promote efficient leg muscle contraction for jumping.[27] During flight, DUM neurons are also active and release octopamine throughout the body to synchronize energy metabolism, respiration, muscle activity and flight interneuron activity.[14] Octopamine in locusts is four times more concentrated in the axon than in the soma, and decreases the locust's myogenic rhythm.[31]

In the honey bee, octopamine has a major role in learning and memory. In the firefly, octopamine release leads to light production in the lantern.[32][33]

The emerald cockroach wasp stings the host for its larvae (a cockroach) in the head ganglion (brain). The venom blocks octopamine receptors[34] and the cockroach fails to show normal escape responses, grooming itself excessively. It becomes docile and the wasp leads it to the wasp's den by pulling its antenna like a leash.[35]

In Drosophila

Octopamine affects almost every process of the fruit fly and is widely present in both the adult and larval fly. A non-exhaustive list of some of the areas in which Octopamine modulates:

Vertebrates

In vertebrates, octopamine replaces norepinephrine in sympathetic neurons with chronic use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. It may be responsible for the common side effect of orthostatic hypotension with these agents, though there is also evidence that it is actually mediated by increased levels of N-acetylserotonin.

One study noted that octopamine might be an important amine that influences the therapeutic effects of inhibitors such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors, especially because a large increase in octopamine levels was observed when animals were treated with this inhibitor. Octopamine was positively identified in the urine samples of mammals such as humans, rats, and rabbits treated with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Very small amounts of octopamine were also found in certain animal tissues. It was observed that within a rabbit's body, the heart and kidney held the highest concentrations of octopamine. Octopamine was found to be 93% eluted by urine within 24 hours of being produced in the body as a byproduct of Iproniazid in rabbits.[12]

Pharmacology

Octopamine has been sold under trade names such as Epirenor, Norden, and Norfen for use in medicine as a sympathomimetic drug, available by prescription. Very little information exists concerning its clinical usefulness or safety, though.[60]

In mammals, octopamine may mobilize the release of fat from adipocytes (fat cells), which has led to its promotion on the internet as a slimming aid. However, the released fat is likely to be promptly taken up into other cells, and there is no evidence that octopamine facilitates weight loss. Octopamine may also increase blood pressure significantly when combined with other stimulants, as in some weight loss supplements.[61]

The World Anti-Doping Agency lists octopamine as a banned substance for in competition use, as a "specified stimulant"[62] on the 2019 Prohibited List.

Insecticides

The octopamine receptor is a target of insecticides, as its blockage leads to decreased cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. Essential oils can have such a neuro-insecticidal effect,[63] and this octopamine-receptor mechanism is naturally utilized by plants with active insecticidal phytochemicals.[64]

Biochemical mechanisms

Mammals

Octopamine is one of four primary endogenous agonists of human trace amine-associated receptor 1 together with 3-iodothyronamine, dopamine and tyramine.[65][66]

Invertebrates

Octopamine binds to its respective G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) to initiate a cell signal transduction pathway. At least three groups of octopamine GPCR have been defined. OctαR (OCTOPAMINE1 receptors) are more closely related to α-adrenergic receptors, while OctβR (OCTOPAMINE2 receptors) are more closely related to β-adrenergic receptors. The Octopamine/Tyramine receptors (including Oct-TyrR) can bind both ligands, and display agonist-specific coupling. Oct-TyrR is listed in both OCTOPAMINE and TYRAMINE RECEPTORS gene groups.[67]

Biosynthesis

Invertebrate synthesis of Octopamine

In insects

Octopamine acts as the insect equivalent of norepinephrine and has been implicated in regulating aggression in invertebrates, with different effects on different species. Studies have shown that reducing the neurotransmitter octopamine and preventing coding of tyramine beta hydroxylase (an enzyme that converts tyramine to octopamine) decreases aggression in Drosophila without influencing other behaviors.[68]

In humans

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "The physiological disposition of p-octopamine in man". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 283 (1): 93–106. 1974. doi:10.1007/bf00500148. PMID 4277715. 
  2. ↑ "Trace amine metabolism in Parkinson's disease: low circulating levels of octopamine in early disease stages". Neuroscience Letters 469 (3): 348–351. January 2010. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.025. PMID 20026245. 
  3. ↑ "FDA's New Dietary Supplement Ingredient Directory | Foley & Lardner LLP" (in en). https://www.foley.com/en/insights/publications/2023/06/fda-new-dietary-supplement-ingredient-directory. 
  4. ↑ "Determination of octopamine, synephrine and tyramine in Citrus herbs by ionic liquid improved 'green' chromatography". Journal of Chromatography A 1125 (2): 182–188. September 2006. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2006.05.049. PMID 16781718. 
  5. ↑ "Mechanism of central action of octopamine". Polish Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacy 31 (5): 509–516. 1979. PMID 121158. 
  6. ↑ "Cloning and Functional Characterization of Octβ2-Receptor and Tyr1-Receptor in the Chagas Disease Vector, Rhodnius prolixus". Frontiers in Physiology 8: 744. 2017-09-26. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00744. PMID 29018364. 
  7. ↑ "Identification and characterization of a novel family of Drosophila beta-adrenergic-like octopamine G-protein coupled receptors". Journal of Neurochemistry 94 (2): 547–560. July 2005. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03251.x. PMID 15998303. 
  8. ↑ "The octopamine receptor OAMB mediates ovulation via Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the Drosophila oviduct epithelium". PLOS ONE 4 (3): e4716. 2009-03-05. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004716. PMID 19262750. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.4716L. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Evolutionary aspects of octopaminergic systems with emphasis on arthropods". Arthropod Structure & Development 34 (3): 379–396. 2005. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2005.04.004. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235927256. 
  10. ↑ "Ancient coexistence of norepinephrine, tyramine, and octopamine signaling in bilaterians". BMC Biology 15 (1): 6. January 2017. doi:10.1186/s12915-016-0341-7. PMID 28137258. 
  11. ↑ "Active Substances in the Posterior Salivary Glands of Octopoda. II. Tyramine and Octopamine (Oxyoctopamine)". Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 4 (3–4): 224–47. 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1948.tb03345.x. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "On the identification of octopamine in mammals". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 237 (2): 422–427. February 1962. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)93937-2. PMID 14453200. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Action of octopamine and tyramine on muscles of Drosophila melanogaster larvae". Journal of Neurophysiology 110 (8): 1984–1996. October 2013. doi:10.1152/jn.00431.2013. PMID 23904495. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "A Multifunctional Role for Octopamine in Locust Flight" (in en). Annual Review of Entomology 38 (1): 227–249. January 1993. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.38.010193.001303. ISSN 0066-4170. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Octopamine receptor OAMB is required for ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". Developmental Biology 264 (1): 179–190. December 2003. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2003.07.018. PMID 14623240. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "The octopamine receptor octß2R is essential for ovulation and fertilization in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 88 (3): 168–178. March 2015. doi:10.1002/arch.21211. PMID 25353988. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "The octopamine receptor Octβ2R regulates ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". PLOS ONE 9 (8): e104441. 2014-08-06. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104441. PMID 25099506. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...9j4441L. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "The octopamine receptor OAMB mediates ovulation via Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in the Drosophila oviduct epithelium". PLOS ONE 4 (3): e4716. 2009-03-05. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004716. PMID 19262750. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.4716L. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Distinct octopamine cell population residing in the CNS abdominal ganglion controls ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster". Developmental Biology 264 (1): 38–49. December 2003. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2003.07.019. PMID 14623230. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "A Follicle Rupture Assay Reveals an Essential Role for Follicular Adrenergic Signaling in Drosophila Ovulation". PLOS Genetics 11 (10): e1005604. October 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005604. PMID 26473732. 
  21. ↑ "Activation of DUM cell interneurons by ventral giant interneurons in the cockroach, Periplaneta americana". Journal of Neurobiology 19 (6): 489–497. September 1988. doi:10.1002/neu.480190602. PMID 3171574. 
  22. ↑ "Octopamine in insects: neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and neuromodulator". Canadian Journal of Zoology 60 (4): 659–669. 1982-04-01. doi:10.1139/z82-095. ISSN 0008-4301. 
  23. ↑ "Serotonin and octopamine produce opposite postures in lobsters". Science 208 (4439): 76–79. April 1980. doi:10.1126/science.208.4439.76. PMID 17731572. Bibcode: 1980Sci...208...76L. 
  24. ↑ "Serotonin and octopamine in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". Science 216 (4549): 1012–1014. May 1982. doi:10.1126/science.6805073. PMID 6805073. Bibcode: 1982Sci...216.1012H. 
  25. ↑ "Occurrence and synthesis of octopamine in the heart and ganglia of the mollusc Tapes watlingi" (in en). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology 70 (2): 277–280. January 1981. doi:10.1016/0306-4492(81)90064-2. ISSN 0306-4492. 
  26. ↑ "Immunological regulation by a β-adrenergic-like octopamine receptor gene in crowded larvae of the oriental Armyworm, Mythmina separata". Developmental and Comparative Immunology 113: 103802. December 2020. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2020.103802. PMID 32712170. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 (in en) Neuromuscular Transmission Modulation at Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions, Oxford: Academic Press, 2009-01-01, pp. 671–690, doi:10.1016/B978-008045046-9.01262-6, ISBN 978-0-08-045046-9, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080450469012626, retrieved 2020-07-10 
  28. ↑ "Octopamine in invertebrates". Progress in Neurobiology 59 (5): 533–561. December 1999. doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(99)00016-7. PMID 10515667. 
  29. ↑ "A new specific antibody reveals octopamine-like immunoreactivity in cockroach ventral nerve cord" (in fr). The Journal of Comparative Neurology 322 (1): 1–15. August 1992. doi:10.1002/cne.903220102. PMID 1430305. 
  30. ↑ "Octopamine-like immunoreactivity in the dorsal unpaired median (DUM) neurons innervating the accessory gland of the male cockroach Periplaneta americana". Cell and Tissue Research 276 (1): 15–21. April 1994. doi:10.1007/bf00354779. ISSN 0302-766X. 
  31. ↑ "The identification of an octopaminergic neurone and the modulation of a myogenic rhythm in the locust". The Journal of Experimental Biology 73: 235–260. April 1978. doi:10.1242/jeb.73.1.235. PMID 25941. 
  32. ↑ "Missing link in firefly bioluminescence revealed: NO regulation of photocyte respiration". BioEssays 23 (11): 992–995. November 2001. doi:10.1002/bies.1144. PMID 11746215. 
  33. ↑ "Nitric oxide and the control of firefly flashing". Science 292 (5526): 2486–2488. June 2001. doi:10.1126/science.1059833. PMID 11431567. 
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  37. ↑ "Layered reward signalling through octopamine and dopamine in Drosophila". Nature 492 (7429): 433–437. December 2012. doi:10.1038/nature11614. PMID 23103875. Bibcode: 2012Natur.492..433B. 
  38. ↑ "Dopamine and octopamine differentiate between aversive and appetitive olfactory memories in Drosophila". The Journal of Neuroscience 23 (33): 10495–10502. November 2003. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-33-10495.2003. PMID 14627633. 
  39. ↑ "Tyramine action on motoneuron excitability and adaptable tyramine/octopamine ratios adjust Drosophila locomotion to nutritional state". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116 (9): 3805–3810. February 2019. doi:10.1073/pnas.1813554116. PMID 30808766. 
  40. ↑ "The role of octopamine and tyramine in Drosophila larval locomotion". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 520 (16): 3764–3785. November 2012. doi:10.1002/cne.23152. PMID 22627970. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-217701. 
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  42. ↑ "Modulation of neuromuscular synapses and contraction in Drosophila 3rd instar larvae". Journal of Neurogenetics 32 (3): 183–194. September 2018. doi:10.1080/01677063.2018.1502761. PMID 30303434. 
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  44. ↑ "Drosophila insulin-producing cells are differentially modulated by serotonin and octopamine receptors and affect social behavior". PLOS ONE 9 (6): e99732. 2014-06-12. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099732. PMID 24923784. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...999732L. 
  45. ↑ "Regulation of aggression by obesity-linked genes TfAP-2 and Twz through octopamine signaling in Drosophila". Genetics 196 (1): 349–362. January 2014. doi:10.1534/genetics.113.158402. PMID 24142897. 
  46. ↑ "Molecular Genetic Analysis of Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila melanogaster". Integrative and Comparative Biology 44 (4): 269–274. August 2004. doi:10.1093/icb/44.4.269. PMID 21676709. 
  47. ↑ "Y do we drink?". Cell 95 (6): 733–735. December 1998. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81695-5. PMID 9865690. 
  48. ↑ "Bar Flies: What our insect relatives can teach us about alcohol tolerance". Naked Scientist. June 22, 2005. http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/articles/article/ruthwilliamscolumn1.htm/. 
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  50. ↑ "Linking physiological processes and feeding behaviors by octopamine". Current Opinion in Insect Science 36: 125–130. December 2019. doi:10.1016/j.cois.2019.09.002. PMID 31606580. 
  51. ↑ "A Neural Circuit Arbitrates between Persistence and Withdrawal in Hungry Drosophila". Neuron 104 (3): 544–558.e6. November 2019. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.07.028. PMID 31471123. 
  52. ↑ "Gut microbiome modulates Drosophila aggression through octopamine signaling". Nature Communications 12 (1): 2698. May 2021. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-23041-y. PMID 33976215. Bibcode: 2021NatCo..12.2698J. 
  53. ↑ "A gut microbial factor modulates locomotor behaviour in Drosophila". Nature 563 (7731): 402–406. November 2018. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0634-9. PMID 30356215. Bibcode: 2018Natur.563..402S. 
  54. ↑ "Monoamines and sleep in Drosophila". Behavioral Neuroscience 128 (3): 264–272. June 2014. doi:10.1037/a0036209. PMID 24886188. 
  55. ↑ "Interaction between sleep and metabolism in Drosophila with altered octopamine signaling". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 287 (39): 32406–32414. September 2012. doi:10.1074/jbc.M112.360875. PMID 22829591. 
  56. ↑ "Alpha- and beta-adrenergic octopamine receptors in muscle and heart are required for Drosophila exercise adaptations". PLOS Genetics 16 (6): e1008778. June 2020. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008778. PMID 32579604. 
  57. ↑ "Variation in mobility and exercise adaptations between Drosophila species". Journal of Comparative Physiology A 206 (4): 611–621. July 2020. doi:10.1007/s00359-020-01421-x. PMID 32335730. 
  58. ↑ "Hazardous effects of octopamine receptor agonists on altering metabolism-related genes and behavior of Drosophila melanogaster". Chemosphere 253: 126629. August 2020. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126629. PMID 32283422. Bibcode: 2020Chmsp.253l6629A. 
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  61. ↑ "Hemodynamic effects of ephedra-free weight-loss supplements in humans". The American Journal of Medicine 118 (9): 998–1003. September 2005. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.02.034. PMID 16164886. 
  62. ↑ "Prohibited In Competition – Stimulants". WADA. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/content/what-is-prohibited/prohibited-in-competition/stimulants. 
  63. ↑ "Insecticidal activity of essential oils: octopaminergic sites of action". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Toxicology & Pharmacology 130 (3): 325–337. November 2001. doi:10.1016/S1532-0456(01)00255-1. PMID 11701389. 
  64. ↑ "Mechanism of action of insecticidal secondary metabolites of plant origin" (in en). Crop Protection 29 (9): 913–920. 2010-09-01. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2010.05.008. ISSN 0261-2194. 
  65. ↑ "Trace amine receptor: TA1 receptor". IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 20 February 2018. http://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/ObjectDisplayForward?objectId=364. 
  66. ↑ "Ulotaront: A TAAR1 Agonist for the Treatment of Schizophrenia". ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters 13 (1): 92–98. January 2022. December 6, 2021. doi:10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00527. PMID 35047111. 
  67. ↑ "Gene Group : OCTOPAMINE RECEPTORS". FlyBase. 16 October 2018. http://flybase.org/reports/FBgg0000133.html. 
  68. ↑ "A subset of octopaminergic neurons are important for Drosophila aggression". Nature Neuroscience 11 (9): 1059–1067. September 2008. doi:10.1038/nn.2164. PMID 19160504. 



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